LABORATORY  EXERCISES 


PRINCIPLES  of 
AGRICULTURE 

HOPT   and   SPAFFORD 


W.   M.  WELCH   MANUFACTURING  COMPANY 
1516  ORLEANS  STREET,  CHICAGO,  ILL.,  U.  S.  A. 


LABORATORY  EXERCISES 


IN 


PRINCIPLES  of 
AGRICULTURE 


BY 
ERWIN  HOPT,  B.  S.    . 

Associate  Professor  of  Agronomy,  University  of  Nebraska 

LINCOLN,  NEBRASKA 

and 

RUSSELL  R.  SPAFFORD,  B.  S. 

Assistant  Farm  Management  Demonstrations,  University 
of  Nebraska;  cooperating  with  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture.  (Formerly  Instructor  in  Agronomy, 
State     School      of      Agriculture,     Curtis,     Nebraska) 


W.  M.Welch  Manufacturing  Company 

including 

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W.  M.  Welch  Scientific  Company 

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i.gric  Dept. 


Copyright    1916 

W.  M.  WELCH  MANUFACTURING  COMPANY 

1516  Orleans  Street.  Chlcaeo,  111.,  U.  S.  A. 


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-.-  •■•■•:■•:.     ■     ■       : 

■      ■■      .-.■.-       :.      •. 


CONTENTS. 


I.    SOILS. 


I.  *The  Durability  of  Important  Soil  Forming  Minerals 7 

II.  *The  Origin  of  Soil 11 

III.  *Soil 14 

IV.  Oxygen — An   Element  of   Plant   Food 17 

V.     Nitrogen — An  Element  of  Plant  Food 18 

VI.     Carbon  Dioxide— A  Compound  Much  Used  by  Plants 19 

VII.  *  Water— A  Compound  Essential  to  All  Plants 20 

VIII.  *The  Function  of  Root-Hairs 22 

IX.     Potassium,  Phosphorous,  Calcium,  and  Nitrogen 24 

X.     Plant  Growth  Affected  by  the  Elements  Nitrogen,  Potassium  and 

Phosphorous , 26 

II.     PLANTS. 

XI.  *Moulds,  Yeasts  and  Bacteria 27 

XII.  *The  Propagation  of  Higher  Plants 30 

XIII.  *The  Gross  Structure  of  Seeds 33 

XIV.  *The  Wheat  Plant 35 

XV.  *Wheat  Descriptive  Terms 40 

XVI.  *Types  of  Wheat  as  Determined  by  Regional  Characteristscs 42 

XVII.     A  Detailed  Study  of  the  Quality  of  Wheat 50 

XVIII.     Commercial   Grading   of   Wheat 54 

XIX.  *The  Corn  Plant 56 

XX.  *Corn  Descriptive  Terms 61 

XXI.  *Kinds  and  Distribution  of  Corn 67 

XXII.  *Adaptation  of  Corn 70 

XXIII.  *Corn  Scoring 74 

XXIV.  *Corn  Judging 79 

XXV.  *Seed  Corn  Testing 81 

XXVI.     The  Oat  Plant 85 

XXVII.     Oat  Descriptive  Terms •  88 

XXVIII      The  Treatment  of  Oats  for  Smut 91 

XXIX.     The  Barley  Plant % 93 

XXX.     Barley  Descriptive  Terms % 96 

XXXI.     The  Characteristics  of  Grass  "Seeds" 99 

XXXII.     The  Identification  of  Grass  "Seeds" 103 

XXXIII.  The  Characteristics  of  Legume  Seeds 107 

XXXIV.  The  Identification  of  Legume  Seeds 112 

XXXV.     The  Quality  of  Potatoes 116 

XXXVI.     Bordeaux  and  Other  Protective  Mixtures 118 

XXXVII.     Seed  House  Catalogues 120 

XXXVIII.     Food  Materials  Stored  by  Plants 127 

III.     FARM  ANIMALS. 

XXXIX.  Types  of  Farm  Animals 129 

XL.  *Breeds  of  Farm  Animals — Their  Place  of  Origin 139 

XLI.  *The  Distribution  of  Hogs  and  Cattle  in  the  United  States 144 

XLII.  *Retail  Cuts  of  Beef 149 

XLIII.     Scoring  Beef  Cattle 152 

3 

371250 


XLIV.     Judging  Beef   Cattle 156 

XLV.  *Milk 158 

XLVI.     Scoring  Dairy  Cows 161 

XLVII.     Judging  Dairy   Cows 166 

XLVIII.     Scoring  Draft  Horses *    .  168 

XLIX.     Judging  Draft  Horses 174 

IV.     GENERAL  FARM  PROBLEMS. 

L.     Seasonal  Fluctuation  in  the  Price  of  Farm  Products 176 

LI.     The  Cost  of  Living 182 

LII.  *Illustration  of  Farm  Plans  and  Crop  Rotation 183 


INTRODUCTION. 

Although  laboratory  instruction  in  agriculture  is  relatively  new,  it  is  surprising  to  ob- 
serve how  little  it  has  gained  from  pedagogical  progress  in  other  sciences.  This  is  particu- 
larly true  in  the  matter  of  carefully  prepared  laboratory  exercises  and  supplies.  Our  pres- 
ent methods  of  teaching  other  sciences  have  resulted  from  long  and  trying  experiences,  but 
is  it  not  a  fact  that  the  teaching  of  agriculture,  especially  in  the  more  elementary  forms,  in- 
stead of  profiting  by  these  experiences,  is  tending  strongly  to  repeat  the  same  mistakes? 
For  example,  it  is  but  a  few  years  since  the  laboratory  teaching  of  elementary  physics  was 
lamentably  weak.  The  principles  of  the  subject  were  poorly  organized  and  usually  ob- 
scured in  a  mass  of  details,  not  infrequently  being  entirely  lost  sight  of  in  over-exacting 
methods  of  experimentation  and  elaborate  apparatus.  Today  the  abandoning  of  these  er- 
rors is  making  physics  a  practical  laboratory  study  for  the  average  student.  To  ignore  these 
facts  will,  in  the  opinion  of  the  authors,  materially  delay  the  time  when  laboratory  work  in 
agriculture  will  be  effectively  taught  in  secondary  courses. 

Much  as  the  authors  have  felt  the  seriousness  of  the  situation  mentioned  above,  they 
have  tried  not  to  err  in  the  opposite  direction,  namely,  that  of  simplifying  the  work  to  an 
outline  of  mere  suggestions,  too  brief  to  be  of  much  value  to  teacher  or  student.  Such  sug- 
gestions as  to  laboratory  work  have  come  mainly  from  two  sources:  (1)  Text  books  in  agri- 
culture, appearing  as  in  other  sciences,  before  laboratory  manuals,  have  frequently  and  not 
improperly  suggested  laboratory  work  to  accompany  text  study.  (2)  Many  brief  outlines  of 
laboratory  work  have  been  written  by  state  superintendents  of  public  instruction  and  by 
specialists  in  the  various  branches  of  science.  Unfortunately  for  the  success  of  these  outline 
plans,  the  already  over-burdened  teacher  seldom  has  either  time  or  facilities  to  carefully  pre- 
pare in  detail  lessons  merely  suggested.  Without  the  aid  of  carefully  prepared  lessons,  the 
average  student  studies  to  little  advantage.  This  lack  of  prepared  exercises  and  correspond- 
ing supplies  results  in  bluff  and  disgust  on  the  part  of  the  teacher;  inattention,  disorder,  and 
equal  disgust  on  the  part  of  the  student.  The  naive  outline  suggestion,  "Study  the  grasses 
growing  in  the  field,"  has  about  the  same  meaning  and  effect  as  if  one  would  say  to  a  Hot- 
tentot, "Go  into  the  jewelry  store  and  study  those   fine  watches  which  you  will   find   there." 

The  object  in  writing  this  course  in  Agricultural  Laboratory  instruction  has  been: 

(1)  To  present  some  of  the  more  important  agricultural  facts  in  such  a  way  as  to  in- 
terest the  student,  encourage  him  to  think  clearly  and  consecutively  along  practical  agricul- 
tural lines,  and  to  help  him  so  organize  facts  that  broad  general   principles  are  established. 

(2)  To  so  organize  agricultural  supplies  that  fairly  complete  scales  or  standards  are  es- 
tablished from  which  the  student  can  reason  and  judge. 

(3)  To   make    supplies   readily   available   to  schools  at  moderate  cost. 

The  work  as  presented  in  this  manual  had  its  beginning  in  at  least  two  independent 
sources:  (1)  The  method  of  preparing  detailed  exercises  for  teaching  elementary  general 
agriculture  in  secondary  schools  had  its  origin  largely  in  the  teaching  and  direction  of  H. 
B.  Brownell,  Professor  of  School  Sciences,  University  of  Nebraska.  (2)  The  idea  of  prepar- 
ing laboratory  exercises  in  field  crops  and  making  available  to  schools  the  necessary  supplies 
for  teaching  the  same,  originated  ten  or  twelve  years  ago  with  Professors  E.  G.  Montgomery 
and  T.  L.  Lyon,  both  formerly  of  Nebraska,  but  now  at  Cornell  University.  The  manual  of 
these  two  teachers,  "Examining  and  Grading  Grains,"  has  done  much  to  encourage  and  syste- 
matize laboratory  study  in  field  crops  throughout  the  United  States.  It  was  largely  the  de- 
mand  for  field  crop   material  created   by  this   manual  which  revived   into  life   the  abandoned 


idea  of  supplying  field  crop  laboratory  material  which  had  formerly  been  carried  on  by  the 
Department  of  Agronomy  of  the  University  of  Nebraska.  Without  the  use  of  ideas  from  these 
two  sources,  the  work  as  presented  in  this  manual  could  scarcely  have  been  possible. 

Most  of  the  laboratory  exercises  presented  in  this  manual  have  passed  through  several 
mimeographed  editions,  and  have  been  used  in  one  or  more  of  the  following  Nebraska 
schools:  Teachers'  College  High  School,  Lincoln;  School  of  Agriculture,  Lincoln;  School 
of  Agriculture,  Curtis. 

Laboratory  instruction  as  here  outlined  is  designed  to  accompany  classroom  instruction. 
A  division  of  time  that  will  probably  fit  most  schools  is  as  follows: 

(1)  Classroom   Work— Three   single  periods  per  week. 

(2)  Laboratory  Work — Two  double  periods  per  week. 

The  exercises  should  afford  ample  laboratory  work  for  a  period  of  at  least  thirty-six 
weeks.  Should  the  instructor  desire  to  give  but  eighteen  weeks  to  laboratory  study,  he  will 
be  aided  in  his  choice  of  work  by  the  asterisks  preceding  names  of  exercises  given  in  the 
table  of  contents.  The  instructor  will  observe  that  the  manual  is  divided  into  exercises 
according  to  subject  matter,  rather  than  the  time  allowed  for  a  laboratory  period.  Some  of 
these  exercises  will  require  at  least  two  laboratory  periods,  a  few,  less  than  one. 

In  order  to  give  the  student  some  aid  in  preparing  a  brief  record  of  work  covered  in 
the  laboratory,  the  authors  have  indicated  by  the  use  of  Arabic  numerals  and  small  letters 
those  parts  calling  for  diagrams,  drawings,  or  written  record.  A  few  exceptions  to  this  rule 
will  be  found  where  blank  forms  are  given  as  an  aid  in  assembling  and  recording  a  variety 
of  related  data. 

In  the  appendix  will  be  found  a  list  of  laboratory  supplies  for  the  complete  course  based 
upon  the  needs  of  a  laboratory  section  of  twelve  students.  The  name  and  quantity  of  each 
supply  is  accompanied  by  the  approximate  price.  The  use  of  laboratory  supplies  as  suggested 
in  the  appendix  does  not  preclude  the  use  of  material  which  may  be  secured  locally.  In  fact, 
the  use  of  the  supplies  called  for  in  the  manual  should,  by  establishing  a  sort  of  scale,  make 
local  material  more  useful  than  would  otherwise  be  the  case.  For  example,  the  study  of  the 
various  samples  of  wheat  from  different  parts  of  the  United  States  should  give  the  student  a 
broad,  general  idea  as  to  the  effect  of  rainfall,  evaporation,  temperature,  length  of  growing  sea- 
son, etc.,  upon  wheat.  With  this  general  idea  clearly  realized,  the  student  should  have  a  much 
better  comprehension  of  the  wheat  in  his  own  locality  than  could  possibly  result  from  a  study 
of  local  wheat  alone.  The  same  is  true  of  corn  and  other  important  field  crops.  Again  in  the 
case  of  soils,  if  the  student  is  to  gain  a  fair  idea  of  the  effect  of  texture  upon  the  physical 
properties  of  soil,  he  must  have  some  carefully  chosen  materials  to  serve  as  standards  for 
study.  It  is  not  an  easy  matter  for  the  average  teacher  to  select  and  prepare  good  sam- 
ples of  sand,  silt  and  clay  for  laboratory  use.  With  a  small  supply  of  standardized  material, 
secured  from  a  reliable  source,  he  may  make  a  more  accurate  study  of  soil  texture  in  his 
own  locality  than  would  be  possible  with  material  chosen  and  prepared  at  random.  The 
same  is  quite  true  in  the  study  of  humus  content,  acidity  and  alkalinity  of  soils. 

Realizing  their  own  limitations  and  appreciating  the  fact  that  this  is  one  of  the  first  at- 
tempts to  organize  laboratory  exercises  and  supplies  in  general  agriculture,  the  authors  feel 
that  the  work  leaves  much  to  be  desired  and  will  greatly  appreciate  suggestions  and  criti- 
cisms  from   teachers  and   scientists   who   see   possibilities   of   improvement. 

For  help  received  in  preparing  these  exercises  the  authors  feel  under  obligations  to 
Prof.  N.  A.  Bengston,  Dr.  R.  J.  Pool  and  Prof.  S.  B.  Gass,  of  the  University  of  Nebraska, 
and  Supt.  C.  V.  Williams  and  Prof.  E.  Rail,  of  the  University  of  Nebraska  School  of  Agri- 
culture at  Curtis.  Other  acknowledgments  accompany  lesson  material  and  photographs  in 
place. 

E.  H. 
Lincoln,  Nebr.,  July,  1914.  R.    R.    S. 


EXERCISE  I. 
THE  DURABILITY  OF  IMPORTANT  SOIL  FORMING  MINERALS. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  Twelve  each  of  labeled  specimens  (about  one  cubic  inch  in  vol- 
ume) of  quartz,  feldspar,  mica,  hornblende,  and  calcite.  Twelve  glass  plates  4"x4".  One  iron  mortar  for  cruih- 
ing  small  pieces  of  the  mineral  specimens.     Twelve  reagent   bottles  filled  with  hydrochloric  acid. 

DIRECTIONS.  First  read  the  following  explanation  of  terms  to  be  used  in  the  study  of 
minerals.  Answer  such  questions  as  accompany  the  explanations.  Then  turn  to  the  descriptive 
forms,  pages  8,  9,  and  10,  and  fill  in  a  careful  description  of  each  mineral  with  which  you  are 
supplied. 

1.  (a)  Name.  Give  the  name  of  the  mineral,  (b)  Color.  State  the  color  or  the 
colors  of  the  mineral,  (c)  Transparency.  Minerals  are  transparent  when  clear  like  window 
glass;  translucent  when  but  a  small  amount  of  light  passes  through;  opaque  when  no  light 
passes  through. 

Name,  color  and  transparency  are  necessary  in  identification,  but  give  very  little  clue  to 
the  durability  of  minerals. 

2.  Cleavage.  The  tendency  of  minerals  to  break  more  easily  in  some  directions 
than  in  others  is  called  cleavage.  There  may  be  one,  two  or  three  planes  of  cleavage  as  shown 
by  mica,  feldspar,  and  calcite  respectively. 

Explain  how  planes  of  cleavage  may  be  a  point  of  weakness  in  minerals. 

3.  Hardness.  A  mineral  is  soft  if  it  can  be  scratched  with  the  thumb  nail;  hard  if  it 
is  difficult  to  scratch  it  with  a  knife  blade;  very  hard  if  the  specimen  will  scratch  glass. 

When  hard  and  soft  minerals  are  exposed  to  weathering  which  as  a  rule  prove  to  be  more 
durable? 

4.  Solubility.  Place  a  very  small  piece  of  the  mineral  to  be  studied  in  a  test  tube. 
Add  a  few  drops  of  hydrochloric  acid.  If  the  mineral  is  soluble  it  slowly  disappears.  The 
dissolving  of  minerals  is  often  accompanied  by  effervescence  or  bubbling.  If  the  mineral  is 
insoluble  the  acid  will  have  no  perceptible  effect  upon  it. 

Explain   how   solubility  may   determine   the  weakness  or  durability  of  a  mineral. 

5.  Porosity.  A  mineral  is  porous  if  a  drop  of  water  sinks  rapidly  into  the  dry  speci- 
men; compact  if  the  drop  remains  on  the  surface  for  some  time. 

How  do  you  explain  that  a  compact  mineral  is  as  a  rule  more  durable  than  a  porous 
mineral? 

Conclusions  as  to  Durability.  The  durability  of  a  mineral  may  be  quite  accurately 
judged  from  such  properties  as  hardness,  solubility,  cleavage,  and  porosity.  After  studying 
the  properties  of  a  given  mineral  and  coming  to  some  conclusion  as  to  its  durability  state  your 
reasons  for  such  conclusion. 


Form  to  be  Used  in  the  Study  of  the  Durability  of  Important  Soil-Forming  Minerals. 


1.  (a)     Name (b)    Color. 

(c)    Transparency 

t 

2.  Cleavage    

3.  Hardness    

4.  Solubility    

5.  Porosity    

Conclusion  as  to  Durability 


1.  (a)     Name     (b)   Color. 

(c)    Transparency « •  •  • 

2.  Cleavage    

3.  Hardness    

4.  Solubility    •> • 

5.  Porosity 

Conclusion  as  to  Durability 


I) 


Form  to  be  Used  in  the  Study  of  the  Durability  of  Important  Soil-Forming  Minerals. 


1.  (a)     Name    (b)    Color. 

(c)    Transparency 

2.  Cleavage    

3.  Hardness - 

4.  Solubility 

5.  Porosity 

Conclusion  as  to  Durability 


1.  (a)     Name (b)   Color. 

(c)    Transparency 

2.  Cleavage   — 

3.  Hardness    • 

4.  Solubility    

5.  Porosity  -. . « 

Conclusion  as  to  Durability 


Form  to  be  Used  in  the  Study  of  the  Durability  of  Important  Soil-Forming  Minerals. 


1.  (a)     Name     (b)   Color. 

(c)    Transparency 

2.  Cleavage    

3.  Hardness    

4.  Solubility     

5.  Porosity 

Conclusion  as  to  Durability 


1.  (a)     Name     (b)   Color. 

(c)    Transparency 

2.  Cleavage 

3.  Hardness    

4.  Solubility    

5.  Porosity    

Conclusion  as  to  Durability 


10 


EXERCISE  II. 
THE  ORIGIN  OF  SOILS. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  Six  specimens  of  granite  containing  large  grains  of  the  min- 
erals quartz,  feldspar,  mica,  and  hornblende.  Six  each  of  labeled  specimens  of  quartz,  feldspar,  mica  and  horn- 
blende. At  least  six  specimens  of  each  of  the  following:  Fresh  granite,  weathered  granite,  sandstones  (including 
specimens  of  quartzite),  limestones  and  shales.  One  iron  mortar  for  crushing  small  bits  of  rock  specimens.  Twelve 
glass  plates,  4"x4".  Twelve  reagent  bottles  tilled  with  hydrochloric  acid ;  coarse  sand ;  silt  loam ;  twelve  glass 
tubes ;  basin. 

Part  A.     The  Weathering  of  Some  Important  Soil-Forming  Rocks- 

1.  Examine  very  closely  the  crystals  of  which  a  piece  of  granite  is  composed,  (a)  Iden- 
tify and  give  names  to  the  various  substances  which  enter  into  the  composition  of  the  piece 
of  granite  which  you  have  at  hand,  (b)  Why  would  it  be  incorrect  to  call  granite  a  mineral? 
(c)  What  name  may  be  applied  to  such  substances  as  granite  in  order  to  distinguish  them 
from    substances    which,    strictly    speaking,    are  minerals?  * 

2.  Granite  is  composed  essentially  of  feldspar  and  quartz  associated  with  other  minerals. 
It  is  common  to  many  regions  where  great  movements  of  the  earth's  crust  have  taken  place 
as,  for  example,  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  Black  Hills,  and  New  England,  (a)  From  your 
study  of  quartz  and  feldspar,  which  of  the  two  minerals  do  you  infer  will  weather  more  read- 
ily? (b)  Observe  a  specimen  of  weathered  granite.  What  mineral  shows  the  greatest  re- 
sistance? (c)  What  would  be  the  nature  of  the  soil  formed  from  this  more  resistant  min- 
eral; i.  e.,  would  it  be  sandy  or  clayey? 

3.  As  granite  and  similar  rocks  decompose  they  give  rise  to  a  mixture  of  coarse  and 
fine  particles.  (It  has  been  arbitrarily  decided  that  the  various  classes  of  soil  shall  be  named 
according  to  the  sizes  of  particles  of  which  they  are  composed.  For  example,  soils  composed 
almost  wholly  of  large  particles  are  called  gravel  or  sand.  Soils  composed  almost  wholly  of 
very  fine  particles  are  called  silt.  While  soils  containing  a  large  percent  of  extremely  fine 
particles  are  classed  as  clay.  In  case  no  particular  size  of  particles  predominates  in  a  soil 
it  is  called  a  loam.)  As  grains  of  sand  and  finer  material  disintegrate  from  rocks  they  are 
readily  sorted  by  running  water  and  may  sooner  or  later  be  deposited  as  beds  of  sand,  beds 
of  silt,  and  beds  of  clay.  The  water  of  streams  and  fresh  water  lakes  contains  some  mineral 
matter  in  solution.  Oceans  and  salt  lakes  are  dense  solutions  of  mineral  water.  As  such 
water  percolates  through  beds  of  sand,  it  usually  deposits  some  of  the  mineral  matter  con- 
tained in  solution  about  the  sand  particles,  thus  cementing  them  together.  The  resulting  ma- 
terial is  then  spoken  of  as  sandstone.  The  durability  of  sandstone  depends  much  upon  the 
nature  of  the  cementing  material. 

Observe  the  specimens  at  hand.  (Quartzite,  a  much  modified  sandstone,  has  undergone 
more  of  the  effects  of  moderate  heat,  chemical  action  and  pressure  than  has  the  ordinary  sand- 
stone, which  fact  explains  its  different  appearance.)  (a)  From  which  specimens  can  you 
loosen  grains  most  readily?  (b)  Test  the  porosity  of  these  specimens,  (c)  Describe  the  vari- 
ous specimens  of  sandstone  which  you  have  at  hand,  as  to  hardness,  porosity,  and  strength  of 
cementing  material,  (d)  The  weathering  of  sandstone  would  give  rise  to  what  kind  of 
soil? 

4.  Limestones  vary  greatly  on  account  of  differences  in  origin  and  kinds  of  impurities 
present.  Some  contain  much  clayey  matter,  others  much  sand,  while  a  few  may  be  classed 
as  almost  pure  limestone,  (a)  What  is  the  color  of  the  specimen  at  hand?  (b)  Hardness? 
(c)     Porosity?     (d)     Place  a  small  amount  of  crushed  limestone  in  a  test  tube.     Add  hydro- 


*  Note — Many  rocks  are  made  up  of  a  number  of  minerals,  as  you  have  observed  in  the  case  of  granite.  A 
number  of  important  soil-forming  rocks,  however,  are  almost  wholly  made  up  of  but  one  or  two  minerals,  for  ex- 
ample, limestone  and  sandstone. 

11 


chloric  acid.  The  action  of  the  acid  upon  this  rock  is  like  its  action  upon  what  mineral? 
What  then  appears  to  be  the  essential  mineral  present  in  limestone?  (e)  Observe  any  resi- 
due left  in  the  bottom  of  the  tube  after  the  mineral  which  forms  the  bulk  of  the  limestone  has 
been   dissolved.     Infer   the  kind   of  soil   which   would  result  from  the  dissolving  of  limestones. 

5.  Extensive  beds  of  mud  made  up  of  silt  and  clay  are  being  deposited  in  large  bodies  of 
water.  Under  moderate  heat  and  pressure  these  beds  may  at  some  later  era  become  shale. 
Under  great  heat  and  pressure  they  may  even  become  slate,  (a)  From  your  study  of  the 
durability  of  minerals,  infer  what  class  (weak  or  durable  minerals)  forms  the  bulk  of  shales, 
(b)  State  the  colors  of  the  shale  specimens  at  hand,  (c)  Describe  their  feeling  when  wet. 
(d)  Hardness?  (e)  Solubility?  (f)  Porosity?  (g)  Compare  the  durability  of  shales  with 
the  durability  of  other  rocks  studied  in  this  lesson,  (h)  Infer  the  nature  of  soil  resulting  from 
the  weathering  of  shale. 

6.  (a)  In  general,  what  kind  of  minerals,  as  regards  durability,  tend  to  form  sand?  (b) 
What  kind  of  minerals  tend  to  form  silt  or  clay?  (c)  How  do  you  explain  that  the  weather- 
ing of  granitic  rocks  often  gives  rise  to  a  soil  containing  a  large  per  cent  of  gravel  and  sand? 
(d)     Limestones  often  give  rise  to  large  areas  of  silt  and  clay  soils.     Explain. 


Part  B.    Transportation  and  Sorting  of  Soils. 

7.  Although  most  soils  are  derived  from  disintegrated  rock,  the  belief  that  soils  are  de- 
rived from  the  rock  which  lies  just  beneath  them  is  oftentimes  faulty.  Disintegrated  material 
from  any  locality,  or  from  any  one  kind  of  rock,  may  have  been  carried  from  the  place  of 
formation  and  mixed  with  materials  from  various  rocks  of  other  localities.  Thus  mixed,  this 
material  may  be  deposited  in  still  another  place  with  or  without  being  sorted  according  to 
size  and  weight  of  particles.  It  is  roughly  estimated  that  at  least  90  per  cent  of  the  soils  of 
the  United  States  owe  their  present  position  and  distribution  to  the  action  of  moving  water, 
moving  ice,  and  moving  air. 

What  kind  of  soils  contain  relatively  little  disintegrated  rock  material?  Reference: 
"Soils,"   Lyon   and   Pippin,   page  41. 

8.  Thoroughly  mix  some  dry,  coarse  sand  with  some  dry,  pulverized  silt  loam.  Fill  a 
test  tube  about  VA"  deep  with  the  mixture.  Now  fill  the  test  tube  about  full  of  water.  Shake 
the  tube  until  the  soil  and  water  are  well  mixed.  Allow  the  soil  to  settle.  What  change  has 
taken  place  in   the  arrangement   of  the  various  sized  particles? 

9.  Place  a  handful  of  sand  in  a  shallow  basin  of  water.  Whirl  the  water  in  the  basin, 
(a)  Allow  the  water  to  come  to  rest  and  observe  whether  or  not  there  has  been  any  ten- 
dency to  sort  the  sand  according  to  the  size  of  particles,  (b)  In  what  part  of  the  basin  did 
the  water  acquire  the  greatest  velocity?  (c)  Are  large  or  small  particles  deposited  in  that 
part  of  the  basin? 

10.  Place  a  small  pile  of  the  mixed  sand  and  silt  on  a  sheet  of  note  paper.  Blow  gently 
through  a  glass  tube  against  one  side  of  the  pile.  What  change  takes  place  in  the  arrangement 
of  the  various  sized  soil  particles? 

11.  Move  your  hand  horizontally  against  a  small  amount  of  mixed  silt  and  sand  spread 
out  on  a  flat  surface.  If  a  solid,  such  as  ice,  caused  the  pile  to  move,  would  there  be  any 
marked  tendency  to  sort  the  particles  according  to  size? 

12.  Figures  1,  2  and  3  illustrate  some  typical  soils,  (a)  What  evidence  is  there  that 
Figure  1  is  taken  from  a  photograph  of  water-laid  soils?  (b)  Figure  2  shows  what  evidence 
of  an  ice-laid  soil?     (c)     Figure  3  shows  what   evidence   of  being  wind-laid? 

12 


Fig.  1.     Water-laid  soil.    Section  of  an  old  river  terrace.  (Distant  view.) 


i 


Fig.    2.    Ice-laid   soil.    (Near  view.) 


m 


Fig.   3.     Wind-laid  soil.   (Near  view.) 


13 


EXERCISE  III. 
SOIL. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  A  quart  or  more  of  air-dry  coarse  sand:  air-dry  pulverized 
silt  loam;  air-dry  pulverized  clay;  muck;  a  few  clods  of  ordinary  soil;  three  teaspoons;  one  compound  micro- 
scope; thirty-six  test  tubes;  thirty-six  evaporating  dishes;  twelve  glass  stirring  rods;  twelve  pieces  of  some 
compact  stone  quite  easily  broken;  two  basins  of  water;  six  glass  tubes  absut  %"  in  diameter  and  6"  lone; 
twelve  narrow  strips  of  blotting  paper;  three  Argand  chimneys;  three  small  pieces  of  cheesecloth  and  cord; 
bottle  of  olive  oil;  bottle  of  alcohol;  four  thermometers;  two  cups;  twelve  wide-mouth  bottles  with  corks  to 
fit;   9  little   air-slacked   lime   and   powdered   charcoal;    two  pie  tins. 

Part   A.     Composition   of    Ordinary   Field    Soils. 

1.  By  use  of  a  compound  microscope,  examine  a  sample  of  coarse  sand;  silt  loam;  clay; 
muck.  Observe  the  particles  of  which  the  various  kinds  of  soil  are  composed  as  to — (a)  kind 
of  material;  (b)  average  size,  i.  e.,  relative  to  the  average  size  of  particles  present  in  other 
soil  samples;  (c)  average  shape  of  particles;  (d)  average  color. 

2.  Place  a  small  amount  of  air-dry  soil  in  a  test  tube  (just  enough  to  fill  the  rounded 
part).  Heat  gently,  (a)  Observe  any  moisture  which  collects  within  the  tube  a  little 
above  the  soil,  (b)  Infer  concerning  the  source  of  this  moisture,  (c)  Most  soil,  though  it 
appears  to  be  dry  will  be  found  to  contain  what? 

3.  Place  some  clods  of  ordinary  soil  in  a  test  tube.  Add  from  one  to  two  inches  of 
water,  (a)  Observe  any  bubbles  rising  to  the  surface,  (b)  Soil  not  filled  with  water  con- 
tains what? 

4.  Observe  the  samples  of  soil  closely  in  order  to  determine  whether  or  not  decaying 
organic  matter  is  present.  In  which  of  the  four  samples  do  you  find  the  most  evidence  of 
such  matter? 

5.  Put  some  fresh,  moist,  rich  surface  soil  into  a  bottle.  Cork  it  up  tightly  so  as  to 
keep  it  moist.  Write  the  date  on  the  bottle  and  then  leave  it  in  some  light  place  where 
you  can  observe  it  from  time  to  time.  The  longer  the  soil  is  left,  the  better,  (a)  Observe 
any  growth  that  appears  on  the  surface  of  the  soil.  Notice  its  form  and  color,  (b)  Recall 
having  seen  moulds  and  similar  plants  appear  on  soils  where  you  had  thought  no  such 
forms  of  life  were  present.  From  such  observations,  what  may  be  inferred  concerning  the 
presence  of  small  living  organisms  in  soils? 

6.  Name  five  things  which  you  would  expect  to  enter  into  the  composition  of  ordinary 
field  soils. 

Part  B.    Some  Physical  Properties  of  Soils. 

7.  Place  a  small  amount  of  sand  in  an  evaporating '  dish.  Add  just  enough  water  to 
moisten  well.  Prepare  some  silt  and  then  some  clay  in  the  same  manner,  (a)  Compare  the 
tenacity  of  sand  with  that  of  silt.  The  tenacity  of  soils  may  be  roughly  measured  by  the 
tendency  of  the  wet  soil  to  stick  to  the  fingers,  (b)  Compare  the  tenacity  of  silt  with 
that  of  clay. 

Another  method  of  ascertaining  tenacity  in  soils  is  to  roll  a  ball  of  moist  soil  in  the 
palm  of  the  hand.     Then   dry  it  thoroughly  and  notice  its  hardness. 

,R.  While  stirring  a  body  of  wet  silt,  add  wet  sand  a  little  at  a  time,  (a)  -Observe 
the  effect  upon   the   tenacity   of  the   silt  as   more  and  more   sand  is  added.     Repeat  the  ex- 

14 


periment,  using  clay  instead  of  silt.  (b)  Observe  any  effect  of  sand  upon  the  tenacity  of 
clay,  (c)  Infer  what  relation  exists  between  the  size  of  particles  and  the  tenacity  of  soils 
when  wet. 

9.  (a)  Dip  a  stone  into  water  in  a  basin  and  then  remove  it.  Observe  the  surface  of 
the  stone,  (b)  Pour  a  little  water  on  the  stone  while  you  hold  it  over  the  basin.  Observe 
whether  or  not  much  more  water  can  be  made  to  cling  to  the  stone,  (c)  Break  the  stone 
in  two.  Compare  the  total  surface  area  of  the  stone  before  and  after  breaking,  (d)  Dip 
the  broken  parts  into  water.  Compare  the  amount  of  water  held  on  the  surface  of  the 
stone  before  and  after  breaking,  (e)  Imagine  this  breaking  of  the  stone  to  be  continued. 
What    relation    do   you    observe    to    exist    between    surface    area    and    water-holding    capacity? 

10.  Fill  an  evaporating  dish  }£  full  of  sand.  In  another  evaporating  dish,  place  an  equal 
amount  of  silt.  In  another,  clay.  Now,  fill  three  test  tubes  with  equal  volumes  of  water. 
Number  the  tubes  1,  2  and  3.  Use  the  water  from  tube  No.  1  to  moisten  the  sand  suf- 
ficiently to  allow  it  to  pack,  but  not  enough  to  allow  drainage  from  the  dish.  In  like  man- 
ner, moisten  the  silt  with  water  from  tube  No.  2.  Moisten  the  clay  with  water  from  tube 
No.  3.  In  each  case,  the  soil  should  be  thoroughly  moist,  but  not  sufficient  to  allow  drain- 
age from  the  evaporating  dishes,  (a)  Observe  which  soil  requires  the  most  water  to  moisten 
it.     (b)     Infer  the  cause  of  any  difference  in  the  amounts  required. 

11.  Dip  a  glass  tube  into  water.  (a)  Observe  the  height  of  water  within  the  tube  as 
compared  with  the  water  level  outside.  Dip  the  end  of  a  strip  of  blotting  paper  or  a  piece 
of  crayon  into  the  water,  (b)  Does  the  action  appear  to  be  related  to  that  just  observed? 
Such  phenomenon  is  called  capillarity. 

12.  On  the  supply  table  you  will  find  three  Argar.d  chimneys,  standing  in  a  basin  of 
water.  Chimney  No.  1  is  filled  with  sand;  No.  2  with  silt;  No.  3  with  clay,  (a)  *Observe 
the  rate  at  which  the  water  rises  in  the  different  soils,  (b)  What  name  is  applied  to  such 
phenomena. 

13.  At  the  next  laboratory  period,  the  apparatus  used  in  Exp.  12  will  be  fitted  in  such 
a  way  that  water  can  be  drained  through  the  soils  under  similar  conditions.  Leave  six  or 
eight  lines  on  your  note  paper  that  you  may  fill  in  the  answers  to  the  following  observations 
and  inferences  which  you  will  make  at  the  next  laboratory  period,  (a)  Observe  any  dif- 
ference in  the  rate  at  which  water  drains  through  the  soils,  (b)  Infer  any  reason  for  the 
differences  observed. 

14.  From  your  study  of  preceding  experiments  answer  as  best  you  can  the  following 
questions.     State   brief   reasons    for   each   answer. 

(a)  Soil  of  what  texture  will  allow  the  least  surface  runoff? 

(b)  Which   soil   will   best   stand    stirring   immediately  after  a  rain? 

(c)  Which  one  requires  the  greatest  draught  to  stir,  i.  e.,  in  the  language  of  the  farmer, 
which  is  the  "heaviest"  soil? 

(d)  A  cubic  foot  of  which  soil  will  hold  the  least  water? 

(e)  Soil  of  what  texture  will  loose  through  surface  evaporation  the  least  per  cent  of 
water  from  deeply  penetrating  rains? 

15.  Place  a  little  olive  oil  on  the  back  of  the  hand,  (a)  Observe  the  feeling — cool  or 
warm,  (b)  Repeat,  using  water,  then  alcohol.  Observe  which  of  the  three  liquids  evaporates 
most   rapidly,      (c)      Do  you   observe   any   relation    to  exist   between   the   sensation   produced 


•  Note.  The  results  of  this  experiment  are  true  only  for  a  short  distance  above  the  level  of  the  water 
in  the  basin.  It  will  be  found  interesting  to  repeat  this  experiment  using  glass  tubes  three  or  four  feet  in 
length. 

15 


and  the  rate  of  evaporation?  Whenever  a  liquid  is  changed  to  a  vapor,  heat  is  required.  In 
this  case  the  heat  is  taken  from  the  hand,  thus  causing  it  to  feel  cool,  (d)  Following  this 
line  of  reasoning,  explain  why  people  sweat. 

16.  On  the  supply  table  you  will  find  two  cups  of  soil.*  The  soil  is  the  same  in  both 
cups  except  that  one  is  moist  while  the  other  is  dry.  (a)  Compare  the  readings  of  the 
thermometers  which  record  the  temperature  of  the  soils  in  these  cups.  Record  the  number 
of  degrees  difference,  (b)  Infer  the  cause  for  this  difference  in  temperature,  (c)  Under 
similar  conditions  which  kind  of  soil  will  "warm  up"  more  easily,  soil  which  is  relatively  dry 
or  soil  which  contains  a  relatively  large  amount  of  water?    Explain  at  least  in  part. 

17.  (a)  What  difference  have  you»  observed  between  light  and  dark  colored  clothing  as 
to  comfort  in  hot  sunshine?     (b)    How  do  you  explain  the  difference  observed? 

18.  Fill  two  shallow  pans  with  silt.  Sprinkle  a  little  lime  over  the  surface  of  one  and 
a  little  lamp  black  or  powdered  charcoal  over  the  other.  Place  thermometers  in  position  to 
record  the  surface  temperature  of  the  contents  of  the  pans.  (The  thermometer  bulbs  should 
be  placed  just  below  the  surface  of  the  silt.)  (a)  Before  placing  the  apparatus  in  direct  sun- 
light, allow  it  to  stand  for  a  few  minutes  and  then  take  the  readings  of  the  thermometers. 
As  soon  as  you  have  taken  the  initial  readings,  place  the  apparatus  in  direct  sunlight,  (b) 
After  a  few  minutes  record  the  readings  again,  (c)  Calculate  any  difference  in  the  readings 
recorded,     (d)    Infer  a  reason  for  any  difference  in  temperature. 

19.  Hold  your  hand  in  such  a  position  in  direct  sunlight  that  the  sun's  rays  will  strike 
the  palm  very  obliquely.  After  holding  it  in  this  position  for  a  time,  turn  the  hand  so  that 
the  sun's  rays  will  strike  the  palm  vertically,  (a)  Notice  any  change  in  heat  sensation,  (b) 
Recall  any  evidence  of  the  difference  in  temperature  on  the  north  and  south  side  of  a  roof, 
(c)  Infer  concerning  the  difference  in  temperature  between  the  north  and  south  slopes  of 
hills  in  a  rolling  country. 

20.     State    three    conditions    which    will    affect  soil  temperatures. 


•The  soil  in   one  cup  should  have  been  moistened  at  least  an  hour  before  reading  its  temperature. 


16 


EXERCISE  IV. 
OXYGEN— AN   ELEMENT  OF   PLANT  FOOD. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  Two  ounces  of  sodium  peroxide;  twelve  test  tubes;  twelve  pieces 
of  fine  iron  wire  about   five  inches  long,  to  the  end   of  which  have  been  fastened  small  bits  of  soft  wood. 

1.  Place  enough  sodium  peroxide  in  a  test  tube  to  fill  the  rounded  part.  Add  a  little 
water,  (a)  Observe  any  change.  The  chemical  action  which  takes  place  when  sodium  peroxide 
and  water  are  brought  together  sets  oxygen  gas  free.  This  gas,  together  with  nitrogen  (to 
be  studied  later)  forms  the  bulk  of  the  atmosphere,  (b)  Observe  the  color  of  the  gas  given 
off.     Do  not  mistake  the  fine  spray  of  water  for  oxygen. 

2.  Hold  a  match,  burning  with  a  small  flame,  in  the  mouth  of  the  tube.  Observe  the 
effect  on  the  flame. 

3.  Let  the  match  flame  go  out,  leaving  a  glowing  coal.  Hold  the  coal  in  the  mouth  of 
the   tube.     Observe  what   occurs. 

4.  Fill  a  test  tube  with  gas  from  the  gas  supply  at  the  desk  by  holding  it  inverted  over 
the  burner  while  you  turn  on  the  gas  for  a  moment  and  then  turn  it  off.  Remove  it  and  light 
the  gas  which  the  tube  contains,  (a)  Observe  the  color  of  the  flame  as  the  gas  burns.  In  a 
similar  way,  attempt  to  light  oxygen  gas  as  it  is  given  off.  (b)  Observe  whether  or  not  it 
will  burn. 

5.  On  the  supply  table  find  a  piece  of  iron  wire,  to  one  end  of  which  has  been  fastened 
a  piece  of  soft  wood.  Light  the  wood  with  a  match  or  by  holding  it  in  the  Bunsen  flame,  (a) 
As  soon  as  lighted  hold  it  in  the  mouth  of  a  test  tube  filled  with  oxygen.  Observe  whether  or 
not  the  wire  burns,    (b)  Remove  the  wire.     Observe  any  change  in  its  appearance.- 

6.  Make  a  brief  summary  of  the  important  points  studied  as  suggested  by  the  following: 
(a)  Does  oxygen  have  color?  (b)  Will  it  allow  other  substances  to  burn  in  it?  (c)  Will 
it  burn? 


17 


EXERCISE  V. 
NITROGEN— AN  ELEMENT  OF  PLANT  FOOD. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  An  ounce  of  pyrogallic  acid;  strong  potassium  hydroxide  solu- 
tion; twelve  rulers;   two  tanks  or  basins  filled  with  water;  twelve   test   tubes. 

1.  Put  enough  pyrogallic  acid  into  a  test  tube  to  fill  the  rounded  part.  Add  water  until 
the  tube  is  filled  to  a  depth  of  a  half  inch.  To  this  add  an  equal  amount,  or  a  little  less,  of 
potassium  hydroxide  solution.  Close  the  tube  tightly  with  the  thumb.  The  upper  part  of  the 
tube   contains  what?     Measure  with  a  ruler  and  state  its  depth  in  centimeters. 

2.  Shake  the  tube  thoroughly  for  a  short  time,  being  careful  to  let  no  more  air  enter;  then 
hold  it  upside  down  with  the  mouth  below  the  surface  of  the  water  in  a  tank  provided  for 
this  purpose,  (a)  Observe  any  change  which  takes  place  within  the  tube-  when  the  thumb  is 
removed.  ''Before  removing  the  tube  from  the  water  again  place  the  thumb  over  the  mouth, 
that  the  water  which  has  entered  may  not  escape.  The  cause  of  the  action  observed  is  that  the 
liquid  mixture  in  the  test  tube  absorbs  the  oxygen,  leaving  almost  pure  nitrogen  in  the  space 
which  was  before  filled  with  both  nitrogen  and  oxygen.  The  vacancy  thus  made  is  filled  in 
by  the  water  from  the  tank,  which  is  pressed  in  by  the  pressure  of  the  outside  atmosphere, 
(b)  Observe  the  color  of  the  nitrogen  in  the  tube,  (c)  What  common  observation  also  tells 
you  that  nitrogen  is  a  colorless  gas? 

3.  (a)  Measure  and  state  the  depth  of  the  nitrogen  in  the  tube,  (b)  This  depth  of  nitro- 
gen is  what  part  of  the  depth  of  the  air  which  you  measured  in  experiment  1?  (c)  From  your 
measurement,  calculate  what  fraction  of  the  air  is  nitrogen,  (d)  Infer  what  portion  must  be 
oxygen. 

4.  Lower  a  burning  match  into  nitrogen,  (a)  Observe  what  occurs.  Try  to  light  the 
gas.    (b)    Observe  whether  or  not  it  will  burn. 

5.  Make  a  brief  summary  of  the  important  points  studied  as  suggested  by  the  following: 
(a)  Does  nitrogen  have  color?  (b)  What  portion  of  the  air  is  nitrogen?  (c)  What  portion 
of  the  air  is  oxygen?  (d)  Will  nitrogen  burn?  (e)  Will  nitrogen  allow  other  substances  to 
burn  in  it?  (f)  Why  is  nitrogen,  as  an  element  of  plant  food,  more  expensive  than  oxygen? 
Reference.     "Elements    of    Agriculture,"    Warren,  page  116. 


•Note:      Though   the   dark   brown   liquid   diffuses   outward    in    the   basin   of   water,   it  does   not   necessarily   follow 
that   the   original   volume   of   the   liquid   in   the  test  tube   has  been  decreased. 


18 


EXERCISE  VI. 
CARBON    DIOXIDE— A   COMPOUND  MUCH  USED  BY  PLANTS. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.     A  half  pound   of   marble   dust;    twelve   reagent   bottles   rilled   with 
hydrochloric   acid;    limewater;    twelve   elbow    tubes;    twelve  one-hole    rubber    stoppers;    twenty-tour    test    tubes. 

1.  Place  some  small  pieces  of  marble  in  a  test  tube  and  pour  a  little  hydrochloric  acid 
over  them,  (a)  Observe  what  happens  in  the  tube.  The  cause  of  this  action  is  that  the  acid 
acts  on  the  marble,  setting  carbon  dioxide  free,     (b)    Observe  the  color  of  the  gas. 

2.  Lower   a   burning   match   into   the   gas.     Observe  any  effect  upon  the  flame. 

3.  Try  to  light  the  gas  as  it  is  given  off.  (a)  Observe  whether  or  not  it  will  burn, 
(b)    Which  of  the   two  gases  previously  studied  does  it  most  resemble?     (c)     Why? 

4.  Place  a  cork  fitted  with  an  elbow  tube  in  the  test  tube  and  let  the  free  end  of  the 
elbow  tube  dip  into  another  test  tube  about  haTf  filled  with  limewater.  Allow  the  gas  to  bub- 
ble through  the  limewater  for  a  short  time,  (a)  Observe  any  change  in  the  appearance  of 
the  limewater.  This  is  the  only  gas  present  in  the  atmosphere  which  affects  the  limewater 
this  way. 

5.  (a)  Why  is  the  limewater  test  necessary  in  order  to  distinguish  carbon  dioxide  from 
nitrogen?  (b)  How  may  you  distinguish  between  carbon  dioxide  and  oxygen?  (c)  Of  the 
three  gases  studied,  which  is  the  most  inactive? 


19 


EXERCISE  VII. 
WATER— A  COMPOUND   ESSENTIAL  TO  ALL  PLANTS. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.     A  few  grams    of    zinc;    500    cc.    flask;    a   little   diluted   sulphuric 
acid;   one-hole   rubber  stopper   to   fit   flask;   pipette;   glass   funnel;   a  cigar  box  filled  with  air-dry  silt  soil;   twenty- 
four  test  tubes;  sawdust;  meat;   salt;  twelve  evaporating  dishes;   distilled   water  or  rain  water;   twelve  glass  tubes 
about  7"  long;  limewater;  vinegar;   olive  oil;  twelve  glass  plates  4"x4"  ;  twelve  one-hole  rubber  stoppers  to  fit  test 
tubes;  twelve  elbow  tubes. 

Part  A.    Chemical  Composition  of  Water. 

1.  (Classroom  experiment.)  Place  a  few  grams  of  zinc  in  a  500  cc  flask.  Add  enough 
diluted  sulphuric  acid  to  cover  well.  Fit  the  flask  with  a  pipette  in  order  that  the  gas  may 
be  burned  as  it  is  given  off.  Hydrogen  gas,  when  mixed  with  air,  is  explosive,  so  before  light- 
ing the  gas  as  it  escapes  from  the  pipette,  first  collect  a  test  tube  full  of  the  gas.  Remove  the 
test  tube  full  of  gas  a  little  to  one  side  and  apply  a  lighted  match.  If  the  gas  in  the  test  tube 
burns  quietly  it  will  be  quite  safe  to  light  the  gas  as  it  escapes  from  the  generator.  After  light- 
ing the  gas  at  the  generator,  hold  a  cool  glass  funnel  or  beaker  over  the  flame,  (a)  Ob- 
serve what  collects  on  the  glass,  (b)  When  hydrogen  burns  in  air,  it  unites  with  the  oxygen 
of  the  air  to  form  what? 

Part  B.     Distribution  of  Water. 

2.  Place  enough  air-dry  soil  in  a  test  tube  to  fill  the  rounded  part.  Heat  very  gently. 
Observe  whether  or  not  moisture  collects  within  the  tube  just  above  the  soil,  (a)  What  is 
the  source  of  this  moisture? 

3.  Recall  having  seen  moisture  collect  on  the  surface  of  a  pitcher  filled  with  water,  (a) 
Under  what  conditions  does  this  occur? 

Recall  having  seen  moisture  collect  on  windows,  (b)  What  conditions  are  necessary  to 
produce  this  phenomenon?     (c)    Infer  the  source  of  such  moisture. 

4.  Place  enough  dry  sawdust  in  a  test  tube  to  fill  the  rounded  part.  Heat  very  gently, 
(a)     Observe  any  change  within  the   tube.     (b)What  is  the  source  of  this  moisture? 

5.  Place  a  piece  of  meat  the  size  of  a  pea  in  a  test  tube.  Heat  gently,  (a)  Observe 
what  collects  within  the  tube. above  the  heated  part,  (b)  What  is  the  source  of  the  moisture 
observed? 

6.  The  four  preceding  experiments  show  what  to  be  true  of  the  distribution  of  water  in 
nature? 

Part  C.    Solvent  Power  of  Water. 

7.  Place  enough  salt  in  a  test  tube  to  fill  the  rounded  part,  then  fill  the  tube  half  full 
of  water.  Shake  well,  (a)  Observe  the  appearance  of  the  water  and  its  taste,  (b)  Infer 
concerning  the  presence  of  salt  in  any  part  of  the  liquid,  however  small.  Evaporate  to  dry- 
ness a  little  of  the  solution  in  an  evaporating  dish,  (c)  Compare  the  substance  left  with  salt, 
(d)    How  may  you  determine  whether  or  not  a  liquid  holds  a  solid  in  solution? 

8.  Add  a  few  drops  of  vinegar  to  a  little  water  in  a  test  tube,  (a)  Observe  the  appear- 
ance and  taste  of  the  liquid,  (b)  Infer  concerning  the  presence  of  vinegar  in  any  part  of  the 
water,  however  small.  Add  a  drop  of  olive  oil  to  water,  (c)  Infer  concerning  the  solubility 
of  olive  oil.    (d)    Infer  concerning  the  solubility  of  vinegar. 

20 


9.  Fill  two  test  tubes  half  full  of  distilled  water.  Breathe  for  a  few  moments  through 
a  glass  tube  into  the  water  in  one  of  the  tubes.  Add  limewater  to  the  water  in  both  tubes, 
(a)  Observe  any  difference,  (b)  Infer  the  cause  of  this  difference,  (c)  What  is  the  source 
of  the  gas  just  tested?     We  may  say  that  the  gas  was  dissolved  in  the  water. 

10.  Test  the  hydrant  water  to  determine  whether  or  not  any  carbon  dioxide  gas  is  present 
in  solution,  (a)  Record  the  result  of  the  test,  (b)  Infer  concerning  the  presence  of  carbon 
dioxide  in  soil  water. 

11.  There  are  three  states  of  matter — solid,  liquid,  and  gas.  (a)  The  solubility  of  what 
state  of  matter  is  illustrated  in  'experiment  7?     (b)    Experiment  8?    (c)    Experiments  9  and  10? 


Part  D.     Soil  Water  and  Rain  Water. 

12.  (a)  Why  may  ordinary  well  water  be  taken  as  a  sample  of  soil  water?  Place  a  drop 
of  well  water  on  a  clean  glass  plate.  In  another  place  on  the  same  plate,  put  a  drop  of  rain 
water.  Lay  the  plate  on  the  radiator  or  place  where  it  will  dry  readily.  (Recall  the  solvent 
power  of  water,  Part  C  of  this  exercise.)  (b)  Observe  if  there  is  any  difference  between  the 
spots  left  on  the  plate  as  a  result  of  evaporation,  (c)  Infer  in  full  the  cause  of  any  differ- 
ence observed,  (d)  Explain  how  rain  water  may  become  soil  water  with  the  characteristics 
of  the  well  water  just  examined. 

13.  Fit  a  test  tube  with  a  one-hole  rubber  stopper  through  which  passes  an  elbow  tube. 
Fill  the  tube  one-fourth  full  of  the  salt  solution.  Boil  the  solution,  allowing  the  steam  to 
pass  through  the  elbow  tube  into  another  test  tube,  (a)  Observe  and  taste  what  collects 
within  the  second  tube,  (b)  How  does  it  differ  from  the  original?  This  process  is  called 
distillation.  Notice  that  the  first  step  in  the  process  is  evaporation,  the  second  condensation. 
(c)  Infer  why  rain  water  closely  resembles  distilled  water,  (d)  Infer  how  soil  water  might 
become  rain  water.* 


•Note:      Investigations    indicate    that   about   70%    of    the     precipitation     on     the     land    surface    is    derived     from 
evaporation  from  the  land  surface. 


21 


EXERCISE  VIII. 
THE  FUNCTION  OF  ROOT-HAIRS. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  Twenty-four  pie  tins;  forty-eight  pieces  of  blotting  paper;  radish 
seeds;  tnree  magnifiers;  one  razor;  one  compound  microscope;  molasses  solution;  one  parchment  tube  previously 
soaked;  one  one-hole  rubber  stopper  to  fit  parchment  tube;  one  glass  tube  about  8"  long;  one  wide  mouth  bottle j 
twelve  potatoes:  salt  solution;  twenty-four  evaporating  dishes;  one  egg;  one  glass  tube  about  6"  long;  sealing  wax; 
one  small  beaker. 

Part  A.    Root-Hairs. 


Germinate  a  few  radish  seeds  in  a  germinator*    with    just    enough    water    to    keep    the 

seeds  moist,  but  not  wet.  If  the  seeds  become  infected 
with  mould,  it  will  be  necessary  to  start  the  experiment 
over  again.  When  the  roots  have  grown  to  a  length  of 
H  centimeters,  examine  them  with  a  hand  lens  for  the 
presence  of  root-hairs,  (a)  Notice  what  part  of  the  root 
is  covered  with  root-hairs,  (b)  Make  a  neat  drawing  of 
the  young  radish  plant  (natural  size)  showing  the  distri- 
bution   of  root-hairs  along  the  root. 

2.  With  a  very  sharp  razor,  cut  thin  cross  sections 
of  the  root  at  such  a  place  as  will  show  the  root-hairs 
to  the  best  advantage.  Examine  these  sections  under 
thf  compound  microscope.  Do  the  root-hairs  appear  to 
be  made   up  of  a  single  cell  or  several  cells? 


Part  B.     Osmosis. 


Fig.    4.       Home-made    seed    tester;    (a) 
closed;  (b)  open.  (Farmers'  Bulletm,  382.) 


3.     (Classroom  experiment.)     Fill  a  parchment  tube 

with    molasses  solution.    Into  the  mouth  of  the  parchment 

tube  fit  a  one-hole  rubber  stopper  through  which  passes  a 

small    glass  tube  about  eight  inches  in  length.     Suspend 

the  tube  in  a  bottle  of  water  in  such  a  position  that  the  level  of  the  molasses  solution  in  the 

tube  will  correspond  with  the  level  of  the  water   in    the    bottle.      After   a    time    observe   any 

change  in  level. 

Notice  that  the  liquid  in  the  parchment  tube  contains  more  material  in  solution  than  the 
water  in  the  bottle.  Furthermore,  observe  that  the  liquid  containing  very  little  material  in 
solution,  passes  into  the  parchment  tube  more  rapidly  than  the  liquid  containing  much  material 
in  solution  is  able  to  pass  outward.  This  unequal  passage  of  liquids  through  the  parchment 
causes  the  rise  of  liquid  within  the  small  glass  tube.    This  phenomenon  is  called  osmosis. 


4.  Place  a  few  fresh  slices  of  potato  in  a  dish  of  water.  Also  place  a  few  in  a  strong  salt 
solution,  (a)  After  a  few  minutes  observe  any  difference  in  the  feeling  of  the  slices  of  potato, 
(b)  The  slices  of  potato  are  made  up  of  cells  largely  filled  with  water  and  protoplasm.  If 
the  ordinary  amount  of  liquid  present  in  the  potato  cells  is  decreased  what  effect  will  it  have 
upon  the  turgidity  of  the  potato  slices?  (c)  What  evidence  do  you  have  that  the  liquid  con- 
tents of  the  potato  cells  contains  more  material  in  solution  than  ordinary  well  water?  (d) 
What  evidence  is  there  that  the  liquid  contents  of  the  potato  cells  contain  less  material  in 
solution  than  the  strong  salt  solution? 


"Note:     Two  pie  tins  and  four  sheets  of  blotting  paper  are  all  that  i»  necessary  to  make  a  simple  germinator. 


22 


5. 


(Classroom  experiment.)  Bore  a  hole  in  the  more  pointed  end  of  an  egg,  sufficiently 
large  to  insert  a  small  glass  tube  from  6"-8"  in  length.  Insert  the  tube 
about  one-half  inch,  and  carefully  seal  it  in  place  by  use  of  sealing  wax. 
Now  chip  away  the  shell  from  a  small  portion  of  the  other  end  of  the  egg, 
being  careful  not  to  break  the  thin  membrane  within.  To  show  osmotic 
action  similar  to  that  in  Exp.  3  above,  place  the  egg  in  a  small  beaker  of 
water  in  such  a  position  that  the  exposed  membrane  will  be  completely 
covered.  After  a  few  minutes  observe  any  change  in  level  of  the  liquid 
within   the    tube. 

6.  In  general,  when  a  strong  solution  is  separated  from  a  weaker 
solution  by  a  permeable  membrane,  which  will  pass  through  more  rapidly? 

7.  The  egg  used  in  Exp.  5  illustrates  very  well  the  action  of  the  root- 
hairs  in  absorbing  soil  water  and  the  food  material  which  it  contains. 
The  analogy  may  be  made  as  follows:  the  shell  of  the  egg — the  cell  wall 
of  the  root-hair;  the  membrane  surrounding  the  contents  of  the  egg 
— the  outer  surface  of  the  protoplasm  lying  just  within  the  cell  wall  of 
the  root-hair;  the  contents  of  the  egg — the  protoplasm  of  the  root-hair 
cell;  the  water  in  the  bottle — the  water  covering  the  particles  of  soil  about 
the  root-hair. 

Draw  an  outline  of  an  imaginary  root-hair  about  Vi"  in  diameter  and 
5"  long.  Draw  parts  to  indicate  the  position  of  cell  wall,  the  outer  surface 
of  the  protoplasm  of  the  cell,  and  the  protoplasmic  contents  of  the  root- 
hair  cell.  Now  draw  about  the  diagram  some  figures  to  represent 
irregular  shaped  particles  of  soil  in  contact  with  the  wall  of  the  root-hair. 
About  these  figures  representing  particles  of  soil  draw  the  outline  of  an 
imaginary  film  of  water.    Indicate  by  small  arrows  the  direction  in  which 


Fig.  5.    Egg  fitted  to 
show   osmosis. 


the  soil  water  is  moving  relative  to  the  root-hair. 


23 


EXERCISE    IX. 
POTASSIUM,  PHOSPHORUS,  CALCIUM,  AND  NITROGEN. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  One- fourth  ounce  of  potassium  metal;  wide-mouth  bottle;  litmus 
paper:  one  pound  of  potassium  chloride;  twelve  test  tubes;  twelve  evaporating  dishes;  one  ounce  of  yellow  stick 
phosphorus;  glass  rod  about  J4"x8";  500  cc.  beaker;  one  pound  of  primary  calcium  phosphate;  one  ounce  of 
calcium  metal;  one  pound  of  calcium  oxide-lime  not  slacked;  one  pound  of  sodium  nitrate;  a  pair  of  forceps  for 
handling  potassium,   phosphorus,  and   calcium. 

INTRODUCTION.  Of  about  eighty  known  chemical  elements  ten  only  are  considered 
absolutely  necessary  to  plant  growth.  These  ten  are  hydrogen,  oxygen,  carbon,  nitrogen, 
iron,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  potassium,  calcium,  and  magnesium.  While  all  ten  are  essential 
only  a  few  are  apt  to  be  deficient  in  ordinary  soils.  The  others  are  so  abundant  or  are  needed 
in  such  small  quantities  that  the  farmer  as  a  rule  needs  to  give  no  particular  care  to  them.  In 
ordinary  field  soils  nitrogen,  potassium,  and  phosphorus  are  most  apt  to  be  deficient.  It  is 
also  true  that  some  soils  are  deficient  in  lime — a  compound  containing  the  element  calcium. 
As  the  lime  grows  deficient,  the  soil  becomes  acid.  Acid  soils  are  unfavorable  to  the  growth 
of  such  legumes  as  alfalfa  and  red  clover.  The  legume  family  has  the  power  to  take  nitrogen 
directly  from  the  air  through  the  medium  of  the  nodule-forming  bacteria  found  on  their  roots. 
Alfalfa  and  red  clover  are  extremely  important  legumes  and  since  they  cannot  be  grown  in 
distinctly  acid  soils  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  maintain  the  nitrogen  supply  of  such  soils  with- 
out resorting  to  less  satisfactory  legumes  or  artificial  fertilizers. 

The  ten  essential  plant  food  elements,  with  the  possible  exception  of  oxygen,  are  never 
used  as  food  material  by  the  plant  unless  they  are  combined  with  one  another  or  non-essential 
elements.  Chemical  combinations  of  elements  are  called  compounds.  For  example — water  is 
a  compound  made  up  of  the  elements  hydrogen  and  oxygen — potassium  nitrate  is  a  compound 
made  up  of  the  elements  potassium,  nitrogen,  and  oxygen. 


Part  A.     Potassium. 

1.  (Classroom  experiment.)  Potassium  as  an  element  is  very  energetic  in  its  action  upon 
other  substances  and  so  does  not  occur  free  in  nature.  It  is  a  constituent  of  many  common 
rocks  and  minerals,  and  is  therefore  rather  abundant.  Feldspar  which  occurs  both  by  itself 
and  as  a  constituent  of  granite,  contains  considerable  potassium.  It  is  a  constituent  of  nearly 
all  soils.  Since  potassium  as  an  element  is  very  rapidly  oxidized  in  the  air  and  also  will  unite 
with  water  it  must  be  kept  under  naptha  or  some  liquid  having  no  oxygen. 

Place  a  piece  of  potassium  a  little  smaller  than  a  pea  in  a  wide-mouth  bottle  about  one- 
fourth  full  of  distilled  water  or  rain  water,  (a)  What  action  takes  place?  (b)  Test  the  solu- 
tion with  litmus  paper  to  determine  whether  it  be  acid,  neutral,  or  alkaline  in  action. 

2.  Examine  a  sample  of  potassium  chloride,  a  compound  of  potassium  commonly  used 
as  a  fertilizer  on  soils  deficient  in  potassium,  (a)  Describe  its  appearance,  (b)  Test  its 
solubility,     (c)     Is  it  acid,  neutral,  or  alkaline  in  its  action? 


Part  B.     Calcium. 

3.  (Classroom  experiment.)  Calcium  is  much  like  potassium  in  its  action  and  so  for  sim- 
ilar reasons  does  not  occur  free  in  nature.  Since  it  is  the  principal  constituent  of  limestone 
and  many  other  rocks  the  total  amount  of  calcium  in  the  earth's  crust  is  very  great. 

Perform  an  experiment  with  calcium  as  you  did  with  potassium.  (a)  How  does  its 
action  on  water  compare  with  that  of  potassium?  (b)  Does  the  solution  have  acid,  neutral, 
or  alkaline  properties? 

9/1 


4.  Place  some  lime  which  has  not  been  slacked  (calcium  oxide)  in  some  water  in  a  test 
tube,  (a)  Is  it  at  all  soluble?  (b)  Does  it  have  acid,  neutral,  or  alkaline  properties?  (c) 
How  may  acid  soils  be  made  neutral  or  slightly  alkaline?  Reference:  "Soils  and  Fertility," 
Whitson  &  Walster,  page  90. 


Part  C.     Phosphorus. 

5.  (Classroom  experiment.)  Since  the  element  phosphorus  has  a  great  affinity  for  oxy- 
gen and  other  elements  it  is  never  found  free  in  nature.  In  combination  with  other  elements 
it  is  quite  abundant  and  widely  distributed.     All  fei  tile  soils  contain  phosphorus. 

In  order  to  keep  the  element  phosphorus  from  uniting  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air  it  must 
be  kept  beneath  water.  Caution:  Remember  that  phosphorus  when  not  under  water  may 
burst  into  flame  at  any  moment.  It  should  never  be  allowed  to  come  in  contact  with  the 
hands  or  other  parts  of  the  body. 

Place  a  small  piece  of  phosphorus  in  a  dry  evaporating  dish.  Tench  it  with  a  glass  rod 
which  has  been  slightly  heated.  Cover  the  dish  with  a  500  cc  beaker,  (a)  Describe  the  action 
which  takes  place,  (b)  Describe  the  product  left  in  the  beaker,  (c)  The  product  left  in  the 
beaker  is  the  result  of  the  union  of  what  two  elements? 

6.  Primary  calcium  phosphate  is  one  cf  the  important  commercial  fertilizer  compounds 
containing  phosphorus.  Examine  a  sample  of  the  compound,  (a)  Describe  its  appearance, 
(b)     Test  its  solubility,     (c)   Is  its  action  acid,  neutral,  or  alkaline? 


Part  D.     Nitrogen. 

7.  (a)  What  per  cent  of  the  air  consists  of  the  element  nitrogen?  (b)  Does  it  appear 
that  there  is  an  abundant  supply  of  nitrogen  in  the  air  above  the  soil  and  also  in  the  soil?  (c) 
What  evidence  can  you  give  to  show  that  the  element  nitrogen  is  not  as  active  as  potassium, 
phosphorus,  or  calcium,  (d)  Since  the  element  nitrogen  is  not  as  active  as  most  other  ele- 
ments, what  may  you  infer  as  to  the  relative  abundance  of  its  compounds?  (e)  What  might 
you  infer  concerning  the  cost  of  nitrogen  compounds  as  compared  with  the  cost  of  potas- 
sium,  phosphorous,   or   calcium   compounds   when  purchased  as  artificial  fertilizers? 

8.  Sodium  nitrate  is  a  nitrogen  compound  common  in  commercial  fertilizers.  Examine 
a  sample  of  sodium  nitrate,  (a)  Describe  its  appearance,  (b)  Test  its  solubility,  (c)  Is  it 
acid,  neutral,  or  alkaline  in  its  action? 


EXERCISE    X. 

PLANT  GROWTH  AFFECTED  BY  THE  ELEMENTS,  NITROGEN,  POTAS- 
SIUM  AND    PHOSPHORUS. 

*Supplies  for  one  Student.  Detmer-Moor  culture  solution.  A  complete  culture  solution  prepared  u  follows: 
2,880  cubic  centimeters  of  distilled  water,  7  grams  of  potassium  nitrate,  1.5  grams  magnesium  sulphate,  1.5  grams 
sodium  chloride,  1.5  grams  neutral  potassium  phosphate,  enough  calcium  sulphate  so  that  a  small  quantity  will 
remain  in  suspension  when  the  solution  is  shaken. 

A  culture  solution  without  potassium  prepared  as  follows:  2880  cc.  distilled  water,  7  grams  of  calcium  nitrate, 
1.5  grams  magnesium  sulphate,    1.5   grams  of  neutral  sodium  phosphate. 

A  solution  without  nitrogen  prepared  as  follows :  Substitute  potassium  sulphate  for  potassium  nitrate  in  the 
complete  solution. 

A  solution  without  phosphorus  prepared  as  follows:  1000  cc.  of  distilled  water,  0.5  gram  of  potassium,  nitrate, 
0.5   gram   of  neutral   potassium   sulphate,   0.5   gram   of   calcium  nitrate,   0.5   gram  of   magnesium   nitrate. 

Germinating  corn,  barley,  or  wheat;  four  opaque  water  culture  jars  with  thin  two-hole  corks  to  fit;  absorb- 
ent cotton ;   ferric   chloride   solution. 

DIRECTIONS.  Label  and  number  the  jars  1,  2,  3,  and  4.  Fill  jar  No.  1  with  the  com- 
plete culture  solution,  jar  No.  2  with  the  culture  solution  lacking  potassium,  jar  No.  3  with 
the  culture  solution  lacking  nitrogen,  and  jar  No.  4  with  the  solution  lacking  phosphorus.  The 
jars  should  be  filled  to  within  about  J4"  of  the  cork.  Add  two  drops  of  ferric  chloride  solution 
to  each  jar  of  culture  solution.  Ferric  chloride  contains  iron  which  is  important  in  producing 
and  maintaining  chlorophyll,  the  green  coloring  matter  of  plants.  The  presence  of  this  sub- 
stance also  hinders  the  growth  of  moulds  which  are  apt  to  attack  the  roots  of  plants  growing 
in  culture  Solutions. 

Select  seedlings  having  roots  several  centimeters  in  length.  Remove  them  carefully  from 
the  germinator  and  wash  away  any  excess  material  from  the  roots.  Fix  one  or  two  of  the 
best  seedlings  in  each  cork  by  means  of  absorbent  cotton  in  such  a  way  that  the  roots  will 
extend  down  into  the  solutions  in  the  culture  jars.  Air  should  be  bubbled  through  the  solu- 
tions every  4  or  5  days. 

1.  Observe  the  plants  daily  for  about  two  weeks.  At  the  close  of  the  period,  describe 
the  growth,  color,  and  leafiness  of  the  plants. 

.2.  It  is  sometimes  said  that  nitrogen  or  some  other  element  of  plant  food  has  become  a 
limiting  factor  in  plant  growth  or  crop  production.    What  is  meant  by  such  a  statement? 

Reference:     "Soils  and  Soil  Fertility."     Whitson  and  Walster.    Article  99,  p.  71-73. 


'Note:      It   will   be   well   to   have    the    laboratory    section  wsrk  as  a  (roup  on  this  exercise.     Each  student  sheuld, 
however,    make    independent    observations    and    records. 


* 


EXERCISE    XL 
MOULDS,  YEASTS,  AND  BACTERIA. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  Five  petri  dishes;  cheese;  lemon;  bread;  filter  paper  or  blotting 
paper;  one  compound  microscope;  one  cake  of  compressed  yeast;  molasses;  seventy-four  test  tubes;  one  one-hole 
rubber  stopper  to  fit  test  tube;  one  elbow  tube;  lime  water;  meat;  twelve  potatoes;  two  ounces  of  absorbent  cotton; 
twelve  500  cc.  beakers  and  twelve  340  cc.  beakers  to  fit  up  as  water  baths  or  double  boilers.  One  copy  of  Moulds, 
Yeasts  and  Bacteria  by  Conn.     Published  by  Ginn  &  Company. 


INTRODUCTION.  Moulds,  yeasts,  and  bacteria  comprise  those  plants  commonly  known 
as  microorganisms,  or  popularly  as  microbes.  These  plants  as  a  group  are  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance to  the  agriculturist.  They  have  an  important  bearing  in  several  directions:  (a) 
They  are  the  cause  of  the  decay  and  spoiling  of  foods  and  many  other  products,  (b)  They 
are  sometimes  of  value  in  the  preparation  of  foods,  (c)  They  are  the  cause  of  many  conta- 
gious diseases  in  both  plants  and  animals,  .(d)  They  play  an  important  part  in  maintaining 
soil  fertility. 

As  a  group  these  plants  lack  the  green  color  characteristics  of  the  majority  of  plants. 
The  absence  of  this  green  coloring  matter,  chlorophyll,  forces  them  to 
live  upon  organic  substances,  that  is,  substances  produced  by  plants  or 
animals.  Since  animals  make  use  of  many  of  the  same  kinds  of  foods  as 
does  this  group  of  plants,  it  is  not  surprising  to  often  find  them  as  rivals 
of  one  another  in  nature. 

Moulds  may  be  roughly  described  as  filamentous  or  threadlike  plants 
easily  visible  to  the  naked  eye.    Reproduced  by  spores. 

Yeasts.  Microscopic  plants  composed  of  oval  bodies.  Reproduced  by 
budding.* 

Bacteria.  Extremely  small  microscopic  plants  composed  of  spherical, 
rod-shaped,   or   spiral   bodies.     Reproduced  by  fission. 

Part  A.     Moulds. 

1.  Place  some  bits  of  cheese,  some  pieces  of  lemon,  and  pieces  of 
moist  bread  in  separate  petri  dishes.  Place  enough  wet  filter  paper  or 
blotting  paper  in  the  dishes  to  keep  the  air  moist.  Set  aside  in  a  warm 
place  (80-95°  F.).  After  two  or  three  days  moulds  will  appear.  Record 
notes   concerning  their   color  and  sire. 


Fig.  6.  A  diagram 
showing  the  com- 
parative size  of  (a) 
mould;  (b)  yeast, 
and    (c)    bactera. 


2.  Remove  some  of  the  mould  from  the  bread  and  examine  it  under 
a  compound  microscope.  Make  a  careful  drawing  of  the  part  containing 
spores,  also  a  few  of  the  free  spores. 


Part  B.  Yeasts. 

3.    Rub  a  little  compressed  yeast  in  a  very  small  amount  of  water.     Place  a  drop  of  the 

water  on  a  glass  slide  and  examine  it  under  the  compound  microscope,    (a)  Observe  the  shape 
of  the  yeast  plants. 


4.  (Classroom  Experiment).  To  one  spoonful  of  molasses  in  a  test  tube,  add  ten  spoonfuls 
of  water.  Rub  a  little  compressed  yeast  in  water  and  put  a  few  drops  into  the  tube  of  mo- 
lasses solution.  Set  aside  in  a  warm  place  for  twenty-four  hours.  Observe  any  changes  tak- 
ing place  at  the  close  of  this  period.. 


'Note:     A  few  species  of  yeast  reproduce  by  spores. 


27 


5.  Fit  the  tube  with  a  one-hole  rubber  stopper  through  which  passes  an  elbow  tube.  As 
the  gas  escapes  through  the  tube,  cause  it  to  bubble  up  through  limewater  contained  in  an- 
other test  tube,  (a)  Observe  any  change  in  the  appearance  of  the  limewater.  (b)  What 
kind  of  gas  is  being  given  off?* 


Part  C.     Bacteria. 

6.  Allow  a  small  piece  of  meat  to  decay  in  a  glass  of  water.  After  a  day  or  two,  examine 
a  drop  of  the  water  under  the  highest  power  of  the  compound  microscope  obtainable.  This 
will  usually  be  sufficient  to  show  bacteria*as  minute  specks,  many  of  which  may  be  seen  swim- 
ming rapidly  about  under  the  field  of  the  microscope,  (a)  Observe  any  variation  in  the  shape 
of  these  minute  plapts.  (b)  Compare  their  size  with  the' size  of  the  yeast  plants,  (c)  Make 
a  drawing  showing  as  accurately  as  possible  the  yarious  shapes  observed. 

7.  A  culture  medium  for  experimenting  with  moulds  and  bacteria  may  be  prepared  as 
follows:  Cut  from  a  sound  potato,  six  rectangular  pieces  (JigxJ^xlJ^  inches).  Place  the 
pieces  of  potato  in  separate  test  tubes  and  add  just  enough  water  to  cover  ther.i.  Use  dry  ab- 
sorbent cotton  as  stoppers  for  the  tubes.  After  stoppering  the  tubes  with  cotton,  stand  them 
in  a  water  bath  or  double  boiler  and  boil  for  a  minute  or  two.  Set  aside  and  boil  again  on  two 
successive  days,  pouring  off  the  water  after  the  last  boiling.  Read  carefully,  experiments  8, 
9,  10,  11,  12,  and  13.  (a)  Why  boil  the  test  tubes  and  potato  pieces?  (b)  Why  stopper  the 
tubes  with  cotton?     References:     Bacteria,  Yeasts,  and  Moulds,  Ch.  XII. 

**8.  Collect  a  little  dust  from  the  surface  soil  in  the  garden  or  from  a  flower  pot. 
Sprinkle  a  very  little  over  the  potato  in  one  of  the  tubes.  Stopper  carefully  with  the  cotton 
and  set  it  aside  where  it  will  have  a  temperature  of  from  80  to  95°  F.  (a)  After  twenty-four 
hours,  examine  the  potato  within  the  tube  to  see  if  there  are  any  festered  patches,  bacterial 
colonies,  on  the  surface  of  the  potato.  Record  the  time  and  results  of  your  observation,  (b) 
Examine  again  at  the  end  of  another  twenty-four  hour  period,  recording  results  as  before,  (c) 
Examine  again  at  the  end  of  a  third  twenty-four  hour  period.     Record  results. 

9.  Collect  a  few  very  small  particles  of  garden  soil  from  a  depth  of  six  inches.  For  fur- 
ther directions  see  Experiment  8. 

9    10-     Perform  Experiment  8  but  instead  of  setting  it  aside  where  it  will  have  a  temperature 
of  from  80-95"  F.  place  it  where  it  will  have  a  temperature  near  freezing. 

11.  Brush  the  leaves  of  some  plant  over  the  mouth  of  the  tube.  Follow  directions  given 
in  Experiment  8. 

12.  Introduce  a  house  fly  into  a  tube  and  keep  it  there  until  you  see  it  walk  on  the  potato. 
Then  allow  it  to  escape.     For  further  directions  see  Experiment  8. 

13.  Unstopper  a  test  tube  for  a  moment  in  the  hall  while  classes  are  moving.  Restopper 
the  tube  and  set  aside  in  your  locker.  Make  observations  and  record  as  directed  in  Experi- 
ment 8. 

14.  Place  some  very  dry  bread  crumbs  in  a  dry  petri  dish.  In  another  petri  dish  place 
some  wet  bread  crumbs,     (a)    After  a  few  days  observe    any    difference    between    the    bread 


•Alcohol  is  also  a  product  of  fermentation  caused  by  yeast   plants. 

"The  student  should  perform  experiments  8,  9,  10,  11,  12,  and  13  outside  of  school  hours,  at  home  or  wherever 
convenient.  He  should  bring  in  a  written  report  of  the  results  of  his  experiments  at  the  first  laboratory  period  fol- 
lowing  the   time   required    to   perform    the    experiments. 

28 


crumbs  in  die  two  dishes,     (b)     Explain.-  («.}     What  is  the  purpose  of_  drying  hay  or  fruit  be- 
fore putting  it  away  for  future  use? 

15.  SUMMARY,  (a)  How  do  moulds,  yeasts,  and  bacteria  differ  from  one  another  in 
size  and  movement,  (b)  When  yeasts  act  upon  starch  and  sugars  what  is  one  of  the  prod- 
ucts given  off?  (c)  From  the  results  of  your  experiments  with  bacteria  and  moulds  what  may 
be  inferred  concerning  their  presence  in  soil;  in  air;  on  plants;  on  insects  and  larger  animals? 
(d)  What  conditions  as  regards  temperature  and  moisture  seem  most  favorable  for  the  devel- 
opment of  these  minute  plants?  (e)  What  are  two  principal  methods  of  preserving  foods? 
(f)  Can  you  give  any  reason  why  foods  such  as  corn  and  wheat  keep  better  than  potatoes, 
apples,  peaches,  strawberries,  etc.     (g)     Are  bacteria  ever  animals? 


29 


EXERCISE    XII.' 
THE  PROPAGATION  OF  HIGHER  PLANTS. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  Eighteen  six-inch  flower  pots,  a  sufficient  quantity  of  rich, 
black  soil  to  till  the  flower  pots;  two  or  three  sweet  potatoes  or  horseradish  roots;  geranium;  grape,  willow,  or 
Cottonwood  cuttings;  leaf  cutting  from  begonia  plant;  petri  dish;  tooth  picks;  Bermuda  grass  underground  stems; 
two  or  three  common  potatoes;  a  glass;  pieces  of  willow  and  apple  branches  one  inch  in  diameter;  one  dozen 
apple  seedlings  one  year  old  (these  may  be  secured  from  some  local r  nursery) :  one  dozen  scions  cut  from  last 
summer's  growth  of  a  good  apple  tree;  grafting  wax  (See  Exercise  XXXVI,  Part  C) ;  cloth  for  bandage;  oat, 
corn,   bean,   alfalfa,   radish,   and   beet  seed. 

Part  A.     Propagation  by   Roots. 

1.  The  sweet  potato  is  an  enlarged  root.  Gardeners  obtain  the  best  results  by  multiply- 
ing or  propagating  the  plant  from  the  root.*  Cuttings  from  the  plant  are,  however,  some- 
times used. 

Plant  a  sweet  potato  root  about  two  inches  deep  in  a  six  inch  flower  pot.  Record  results 
in  the  following  order:  (a)  Date  of  planting,  (b)  Date  of  first  appearance  above  surface, 
(c)    Time  required  to  reach  a  height  of  three  inches. 

2.  After  the  plants  thus  grown  have  reached  a  height  of  three  inches  pull  them  and 
transplant  one  of  the  plants  to  another  pot.  (a)  Record  the  date  of  pulling  and  transplant- 
ing, (b)  Time  required  for  the  original  sweet  potato  to  produce  a  new  set  of  plants,  (c) 
Did  the  plant  which  you  transplanted  grow? 


Part  B.     Propagation  by  Cuttings  from  Stems  or  Leaves. 

3.  Many  herbaceous  and  woody  plants  can  be  propagated  by  cuttings  taken  from  their 
stems  or  leaves.  Most  house  plants  may  be  propagated  in  this  way,  also  such  plants  as  cur- 
rants,  grapes,   cottonwoods   and    willows. 

A  geranium  may  be  used  to  illustrate  the  propagation  of  a  herbaceous  plant  by  means  of 
a  cutting  taken  from  the  stem.  For  this  experiment  select  a  sound  geranium  cutting  about 
four  inches  in  length.  Make  a  hole  in  the  soil  about  two  inches  deep.  Insert  the  cutting  in  the 
hole  and  press  the  soil  firmly  about  it.  If  the  cutting  is  leafy  some  of  the  leaves  should  be 
removed.  The  leaf  area,  thus  reduced,  transpires  less  moisture  and  gives  the  roots  a  chance 
to  establish  themselves  before  the  stem  becomes  too  dry.  (a)  About  how  many  days  were 
required  for  the  geranium  cutting  to  show  marked  signs  of  growth?  (b)  Soon  after  the  cut- 
ting starts  growing,  pull  it  up  and  examine  its  root  system.  From  what  place  on  the  cutting 
do  most  of  the  roots  arise? 

4.  To  illustrate  the  propagation  of  a  woody  plant  by  means  of  a  cutting  taken  from  the 
stem,  cut  from  a  last  year's  growth  of  grape  vine**  a  section  having  three  buds.  Set  the  cut- 
ting in  a  flower  pot  so  that  two  of  the  buds  will  be  below  the  surface  of  the  soil,  (a)  About 
how  many  days  are  required  for  the  cutting  to  show  marked  signs  of  growth?  (b)  Soon 
after  the  cutting  starts  growing,  pull  it  up  and  examine  its  root  system.  From  what  place  on 
the  cutting  do  most  of  the  roots  arise?     (c)  From  what  place  do  leaves  arise? 

5.  The  begonia  plant  is  one  which  may  be  propagated  from  leaf  cuttings.  Cut  a  sound 
leaf  from  a  begonia  plant.  Lay  the  leaf  on  moist  soil  right  side  up.  Fasten  it  down  by  run- 
ning toothpicks  through  it  at  several  places.  Cover  the  leaf  over  with  a  petri  dish,  (a)  After 
a  time  observe  from  what  point  roots  grow  most  readily,  (b)  May  more  than  one  plant  be 
started  from  a  single  leaf? 


•Note:     The  horseradish  or  dandelion   may   also  be  used   to   illustrate   the  propagation   of  plants   from  the   root 
"Note:    For  this  purpose,  currant,  cottonwood,  and  willow  cuttings  are  at  least  as  good  as  grape. 

30 


t 

Part  C.     Propagation  by  Means  of  Cuttings  from  Underground  Stems. 

6.  In  addition  to  having  roots  underground,  a  plant  may  have  stems  underground.  This 
is  often  true  of  grasses.  Bermuda  grass  is  a  southern  grass  which  spreads  both  by  under- 
ground and  above  ground  stems,  making  a  dense,  thick  sod  which  will  stand  a  great  deal  of 
tramping.  In  the  South  farmers  often  start  lawns  and  pastures  by  planting  these  underground 
stems  in  place  of  seeds.  Most  southern  seed  houses  carry  this  material  in  stock,  (a)  Does  the 
underground  stem  of  Bermuda  grass  resemble  in  any  way  the  above  ground  stem  of  common 
grasses,  i.  e.,  is  there  any  evidence  of  nodes  and   leaves?     (b)    If  leaves   are   present,   how   do 

'  they  differ  from  ordinary  grass  leaves? 

7.  Underground  stems  are  in  some  plants  curiously  modified.  For  instance,  in  the  com- 
mon potato  the  end  of  such  a  stem  enlarges  into  a  fleshy,  rounded  growth  called  a  tuber. 

In  general,  the  buds  on  the  stems  of  plants  arise  from  the  axil  of  a  leaf,  (a)  Since  the 
eye  of  the  potato  is  essentially  a  bud,  see  if  you  can  find  anything,  however  scale-like  and 
tiny,  about  the  eye  which  would  correspond  to  the  leaf,  (b)  Does  the  sweet  potato  have 
eyes?     (c)     Explain  your  answer. 

8.  Plants  could  be  grown  from  the  common  potato  just  as  from  the  sweet  potato,  but  it 
is  not  as  profitable  a  method.  The  most  profitable  way  is  to  cut  the  tuber  into  pieces  having 
from  two  to  three  eyes,  and  plant  these  in  the  garden  or  field  directly.  Plant  such  a  piece  in 
a  flower  pot  at  a  depth  of  two  or  three  inches. 

Record  results  in  the  following  order: 

(a)  Date  of  planting,  (b)  Date  of  first  appearance,  (c)  Time  required  to  reach  a  height 
of  about  three  inches. 

9.  Select  a  smooth  potato  about  3J4  inches  in  diameter.  Count  the  number  of  eyes 
Set  the  potato  in  a  glass  of  water  in  such  a  position  that  the  stem  end  will  be  about  l/2  inch 
below  the  surface,  leaving  most  of  the  eyes  exposed  to  the  air.  Record  data  as  follows: 
(a)  Number  of  eyes,  (b)  Time  required  to  show  evidence  of  sprouting,  (c)  Number  of  eyes 
which    produced   vigorous   sprouts,     (d)     Calculated  per  cent  of  eyes  which  produced  plants. 

Part  D.     Propagation  by  Means  of  Grafting.* 

10.  Most  fruit  trees  are  propagated  by  means  of  grafting,  for  the  reason  that  trees  prop- 
agated by  other  methods  give  rise   to  fruit  which  is  uncertain  in  kind  and  value. 

♦♦"Grafting  is  the  operation  of  inserting  a  piece  of  plant  into  another  plant  with  the  inten- 
tion that  it  shall  grow.  It  differs  from  the  making  of  cuttings  in  the  fact  that  the  severed 
part  grows  in  another  plant  rather  than  in  the  soil.  There  are  two  general  kinds  of  graft- 
ing— one  which  inserts  a  piece  of  branch  in  the  stock  (grafting  proper),  and  one  which  inserts 
only  a  bud  with  little  or  no  wood  attached  (budding).  In  both  cases  the  success  of  the  opera- 
tion depends  on  the  growing  together  of  the  cambium  of  cion  (or  cutting)  and  that  of  the 
stock.  The  cambium  is  the  new  and  growing  tissue  lying  underneath  the  bark  and  on  the  out- 
side of  the  growing  wood.  Therefore,  the  line  of  demarcation  between  the  bark  and  the  wood 
should  coincide  when  the  cion  and  stock  are  joined." 

Examine  the  cross  section  of  a  fresh  willow  twig — also  the  cross  section  of  a  fresh  apple 
twig,  (a)  Compare  the  cambium  layer  with  the  outer  bar.  (b)  With  wood,  (c)  Make  a 
drawing  of  the  cross  section  of  the  apple  twig  one  inch  in  diameter.  Indicate  the  following 
parts:  Bark,  cambium  layer,  wood,  pith,  (d)  .What  parts  must  be  brought  into  close  contact 
in  grafting? 

11.  Of  the  several  methods  of  grafting,  root  grafting  is  the  one  practiced  with  apples  in 
starting  young  trees.  To  illustrate  the  method  of  grafting  in  the  laboratory,  select  a  one-year- 
old  apple  seedling  for  the  root  stock  and  an  apple   twig  of  last  summer's   growth   for   the  cion. 


•If  convenient,   an   opportunity   should   be  given   to   study  grafting  in  the  field. 
**From    "Manual    of    Gardening,"   by    L.    H.    Bail*". 

31 


Select  a  cion  and  root  stick  of  about  equal  diameters.  Cut  both 
the  stock  and  the  cion  across  diagonally,  so  that  the  cut  surface 
will  be  from  one  to  two  inches  in  length.  Make  a  vertical  slit  in 
each  cut  surface  and-  press  the  tongue  of  the  cion  into  the  cleft 
of  the  stock.  See  Fig.  7.  After  fitting  cion  and  root  stock  to- 
gether so  that  the  cambium  layer_of  one  coincides  with  the  cam- 
bium layer  of  the  other,  wrat,  the  graft  together  with  a  bandage 
and  apply  grafting  wax  *  over  it.  What  do  you  infer  to  be  the 
purpose  of  the  grafting  wax? 


Part   E.     Propagation  by   Seeds. 

12.  A  seed  is  nothing  more  than  a  young  plant  or  embryo, 
with  a  supply  of  food  either  in  the  embryo  or  surrounding  it,  all 
enclosed  in  the  seed  coat.  The  reserve  food  material  is  formed 
and  stored  in  the  seed  by  the  parent  plant  to  give  the  young  plant 
a  start  in  life.  Plant  various  seeds,  such  as  oats,  corn,  beans, 
alfalfa,  radishes,  and  beets,  in  separate  flower  pots.  Make  a  record 
of  the  work  and  its  results  in  the  following  form: 


Fig.    7.      Diagram    illustrating 
steps  in  root  grafting. 


Date    of    Planting. 


Flower  Pot  No. 

1 

2 

3 

4                 5                 6                    7 

Kind  of  Seed 

I 

Seed   forced   above 
ground  by  growing 
root 

Seed  remaining  be- 
low ground 

Number  of  well   de- 
veloped   leaves    on 
first  appearance 

13.  Make  a  summary  of  the  various  ways  in  which  plants  are  propagated  or  reproduced. 
You  may  include  in  this  summary  what  you  have  learned  of  the  reproduction  of  moulds,  yeasts 
and  bacteria. 


#Note.     Directions    for   the   preparation   of   a   grafting  wax  are  given  in  Part  C  of  Exercise  XXXVI. 


32 


EXERCISE  XIII. 
THE  GROSS  STRUCTURE  OF  SEEDS. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  At  least  a  dozen  germinating  lima  beans  from  8  to  10  days  old  J 
germinating  corn  from  8  to  10  days  old;  dry  and  soaked  lima  beans;  dry  and  soaked  kernels  of  dent  corn. 

Part  A.     Dicotyledonous  Seed 

1.  Remove  the  outer  covering  of  a  soaked  lima  bean,  (a)  Observe  its  elasticity  and 
strength,  (b)  Explain  the  use  of  such  a  covering.  This  covering  may  be  called  the  seed-coat. 
The  scar  found  on  the  seed-coat  is  called  the  hilum   .  (c)    Explain   the   presence  of  the  hilum. 

2.  Examine  a  bean  which  has  grown  to  a  height  of  three  or  four  inches,  (a)  Compare  the 
two  lower  leaves  with  the  two  leaves  just  above,  first  as  to  shape,  second  as  to  thickness, 
and  third  as  to  veins,  (b)  Compare  the  two  halves  of  a  soaked  bean  with  the  two  lower 
leaves  of  the  young  bean  plant,  (c)  What  relation  do  you  observe  to  exist  between  the  two 
lower  leaves  of  the  young  bean  plant  and  the  two  halves  of  the  seed?  The  halves  of  the 
seed  are  called  cotyledons. 


Fig.  8.     A  legume   (Pea)   pod  showing  manner  in  which 
seeds  are  attached  to  pod.      (Anderson) 

3.  Between  the  cotyledons  of  the  bean  you  will  find  the  plumule.  The  word  plumule 
means  a  small  feather,  (a)  What  does  the  plumule  appear  to  be?  (b)  What  does  this  part 
become   in   the   young   growing  bean   plant? 

4.  The  stem-like  portion  at  one  end  of  the  cotyledons  is  called  the  hypocotyle — hypo, 
below:  cotyle,  cotyledon.  Examine  sprouting  lima  beans  found  in  the  flower  pots.  Observe 
what   part    the    hypocotyle    plays,  in    the    growing  plant. 

5.  Make  a  careful  drawing  of  one-half  of  a  lima  bean  (about  natural  size)  showing  cotyle- 
don, plumule,  and  hypocotyle  in  their  proper  positions. 


Part  B.    Monocotyledonous  "Seeds." 

6.  (a)  On  examining  a  kernel  of  corn  what  difference  do  you  observe  between  the  two 
broader  sides?  (b)  Remove  the  "germ"  found  just  beneath  the  concave  surface  of  one  of 
the  two  broader  sides.  It  comprises  about  what  fractional  part  of  the  whole  kernel?  The 
portion  of  the  kernel  which  is  left  is  largely  endosperm — food  material  stored  for  the  use  of  the 
young  plantlet. 


7.  With  a  sharp  knife  shave  away  the  "germ"  side  of  a  kernel  until  two  small  cavities 
appear.  The  cavity  near  the  crown  of  the  kernel  contains  a  small  body,  the  plumule.  The 
lower  cavity,  the  one  near  the  tip  of  the  kernel,  contains  the  primary  root.  The  plumule, 
the  primary  root,  and  the  region  lying  between   them  may  be  called  the  embryonic  plantlet 

33 


Notice  that  the  region  lying  between  the  plumule  and  primary  root  joins  the  embryonic  plant- 
let  with  the  rest  of  the  seed.  It  is  by  way  of  this  connection  that  the  embryonic  plantlet, 
when  germinating,  secures   the   food   stored   for  its  use  in  the  endosperm. 

Make  a  drawing  of  the  kernel  as  it  appears  after  shaving  away  the  surface  of  the  "germ" 
side.  Indicate  the  parts  of  the  drawing  which  represent  hull,  endosperm,  "germ"  and  embry- 
onic plantlet — dimensions  of  the  drawing  to  be  five  times  that  of  the  specimen.  Shade  that 
portion  of  the  kernel  showing  vitreous  starch  in  contrast  with  the  soft  or  white  starch. 

8.  Select  a  kernel  which  has  a  stem  sprout  about  one-half  inch  in  length.  Make  a  neai 
drawing  of  the  specimen.  Indicate  on  the  drawing  the  parts  which  represent  plumule  and  pri- 
mary root. 

9.  Select  good  specimens  of  corn  which  have  been  growing  from  8  to  10  days.  The  speci- 
mens should  show  at  least  two  green  leaves,  roots,  and  kernel  attached.  Make  a  careful  out- 
line  drawing  about   natural   size. 


34 


EXERCISE  XIV. 
THE  WHEAT  PLANT. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  From  six  to  twelve  specimens  of  wheat  plants  showing  roots. 
stems    and   leaves;  some  tap   rooted  plant  such  as  the  radish    or    beet;    twenty-four    heads    of    some    common    wheat. 

Part  A.     Characteristics  of  the  Stem,  Leaves,  and  Roots. 

1.  Observe  the  stem  or  culm  of  a  wheat  plant,  (a)  Is  it  jointed?  (b)  Hollow  or  filled 
with  pith?  The  joints  on  the  culm  are  nodes.  The  part  of  the  culm  lying  between  two  joints 
is  known  as  an  internode.  (c)  Draw  a  neat  figure  about  natural  size  to  show  nodes  and  inter- 
nodes  of  the  wheat  culm. 

2.  The  prominent  parts  of  most  leaves  consist  of  petiole  and  blade.  The  petiole  is  the 
part  which  joins  the  blade  to  the  stem.  In  typical  dicotyledonous  plants  it  is  usually  a  slender 
stem-like  structure,  while  the  blade  is  broad  and  flat.  Observe  the  leaves  of  the  wheat  plant. 
The  petiole  of  grass  leaves,  known  as  the  sheath,  is  much  flattened  and  forms  a  roll  which 
tightly  clasps  the  culm.  The  blade  is  that  part  which  hangs  out  quite  free  from  the  culm. 
Between  the  blade  and  sheath  lies  a  sort  of  joint.  This  "joint"  appears  to  be  stronger  and 
more  dense  than  adjoining  parts  of  the  sheath  and  blade,  (a)  Observe  the  position  of  the 
leaves  along  the  culm.  Are  they  opposite  or  do  they  alternate  with  one  another?  (b) 
Leaves  in  general  are  divided  into  two  principal  groups  as  to  the  manner  in  which  they  are 
veined — Parallel  veined,  as  in  the  case  of  wheat,  corn,  blue  grass,  etc.,;  netted  veined,  as  in  the 
case  of  beans,  beets  and  radishes.  Make  a  neat  drawing  of  a  wheat  leaf,  showing  the  prin- 
cipal parts  and  the  manner  in  which  it  is  veined,  (c)  Make  a  neat  drawing  of  some  netted 
veined   leaf,     (d)     Summarize   the   characteristics  of  a  grass  leaf. 

3.  Observe  the  root  system  of  wheat,  (a)  Does  the  wheat  plant  have  a  long  main  root 
which  extends  vertically  downward?  The  root  system  of  wheat  may  be  described  as  fibrous. 
Corn,  oats,  blue  grass,  and  many  other  plants  have  a  fibrous  root  system,  (b)  Recall  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  root  system  of  a  radish  or  a  beet.  These  plants  have  what  is  called  a  tuber- 
ous tap  root      Make  a  drawing  of  the  root  system  of  some  tap-rooted  plant. 

4.  (a)  What  are  the  principal  characteristics  of  a  grass  as  brought  out  in  this  study? 
(b)    Name  at  least  five  common  plants  which  you  know  to  have  these  characteristics. 


Part   B.     The  Inflorescence. 

5.  The  flowering  region  or  inflorescence  of  the  wheat  plant  is  called  in  common  speech  a 
"head,"  but  in  botanical  language  a  spike.  Notice  that  the  groups  of  flowers  are  distributed 
along  a  common  axis.  This  central,  zigzag  portion  of  the  culm  is  known  as  the  rachis.  The 
flowers,  you  will  notice,  appear  to  have  no  foot-stock  or  pedicle.  Such  flowers  are  said  to  be 
sessile.  Name  at  least  three  other  plants  which  appear  to  have  sessile  flowers  on  a  central 
axis. 

6.  Figures  9.  10,  11  and  12,  page  36,  illustrate  the  gross  structure  of  the  wheat  spike,  (a) 
Observe  figures  9  and  11,  which  illustrate  the  spikelet  side  and  furrow  side  of  the  wheat  spike. 
Which  side  is  broader?  (b)  Observe  a  sample  of  wheat  with  which  you  are  provided.  Which 
side  is  broader? 

..  figures  10  and  12,  page  36.  illustrate  the  rachis.  Remove  five  or  six  spikelets  from 
near  the  base  of  the  wheat  spike  which  you  have  at  hand.     Observe   (a)   any  tendency  of  the 

35 


Fig.  9 


Fig.  10  Fig.  11 

VARIOUS  VIEWS  OF  A  WHEAT  SPIKE. 


Fig.   12 


Fig.    9 — Whole    spike — spikelet    view.      Fig.    10 — Same  as  preceding  with  all  spikelets  but  one  removed.     Fig.  11 
-Whole    spike — furrow    view.      Fig.    12 — Same    as    preceding  with  all  spikelets  but  one  removed. 


Fig.  13.  A  Mature  Wheat  Spikelet  Dissected,  (a)  Whole  spikelet;  (b-j  inclusive)  spikelet  dissected;  (c,  d 
and  e)  fertile  flower  dissected;  (f)  sterile  flowers  not  dissected;  (g,  h  and  l)  fertile  flower  dissected;  (b)  outer 
glume;  (c)  flowering  glume;  (d)  kernel;  (e)  palea;  (f)  sterile  flowers;  (g)  palea;  (h)  kernel;  (i)  flowering  glume; 
(J)    outer  glume. 

A  normal  grass   spikelet  consists   of  two  outer  glumes   and    all    that    lies    between. 

36 


rachis   joints    to    increase   or   decrease    in    thickness  near  the  base  of  the  spike:    (b)  any  tend- 
ency to  increase  or  decrease  in   length   near  the  base  of  the  spike. 

8.  Figures  10  and  12  also  illustrate  two  views  of  a  spikelet.  Remove  one  spikelet  from 
your  sample  spike  of  wheat.  (It  will  be  necessary  to  remove  a  joint  of  the  rachis  with  the 
spikelet  in  order  to  have  its  parts  cohere.)  How  does  the  width  of  the  spikelet  compare  with 
its  thickness? 

9.  Place  a  spikelet  near  the  middle  of  the  upper  portion  of  a  clean  sheet  of  your  note 
paper.  Now  dissect  the  spikelet  as  illustrated  by  Fig.  13,  p.  36.  When  you  have  the  dis- 
sected spikelet  properly  arranged,  write  the  names  beneath  the  respective  parts.  Then  remove 
the  parts  of  the  spikelet  a  little  to  one  side  and  in  their  place  draw  figures  about  natural 
size. 

10.  (a)    Draw  a  view  of  the  wheat  kernel*  (five  diameters)  looking  down  upon  the  suture. 

Indicate  the  location  of  brush,  suture,  and  check,  (b) 
Make  a  drawing  of  the  wheat  kernel  (five  diameters) 
looking  down  upon  the  germ  side.  Indicate  the  loca- 
tion of  germ  and  brush,  (c)  Make  a  neat  drawing 
(five  diameters)  of  the  cross  section  of  a  wheat  kernel 
cut  in  two  neat  the  middle.  Indicate  the  location  of 
suture  and  cheek.  (d)  Make  a  neat  drawing  (five 
diameters)  of  the  longitudinal  section  of  a  wheat  ker- 
nel split  along  the  line  of  the  suture.  Indicate  brush, 
cheek  and  germ. 


*  .' 


Fig.     14.      Cross    section    of    wheat    kernel. 

Fig.   15.     Germ  side      Fig.   16.     Suture  side  H.      Observe   that  surrounding  each  wheat  kernel 

(a)     Brush;     (b)     Cheek;     (r)     Suture;     (d)  ,                                                ~          .      „ 

Germ.     (Anderson)  are  two   modified  leaves  (bracts)  technically  known  as 

glumes,      (a)      What    names   are    given    to    these    two 

glumes?      (I))     Which    glume    covers    the    suture   side   of  the  kernel?     (c)     Does   the   shape   of 

this  glume  indicate  in  any  way  that  it  lies  next  to  the  suture?    (d)    Do  the  edges  of  the  palea 

fit  inside   or   outside   the   edges   of  the   flowering  glume?     (e)    Does  the  palea  have  an  awn  or 

awn  point?     (f)    If  the  wheat  is  bearded,  which   glume   bears   the   beard?     (g)     Which   of  the 

two  glumes   is   somewhat  hyaline,   i.   e.,   something  like  tissue  paper? 

12.  In  field  crop  work  a  mature  wheat  kernel,  together  with  flowering  glume  and  palea, 
is  known  as  a  wheat  flower.  This  idea  of  a  flower  will  not  exactly  conform  with  the  tech- 
nical definition  of  a  flower,  but  answers  our  purpose  at  this  place. 

A  flowering  glume  and  palea  with  a  wheat  kernel  enclosed  is  spoken  of  as  a  fertile  flower, 
whereas  if  the  kernel  fails  to  form,  it  is  known  as  a  sterile  flower,  (a)  How  many  fertile 
flowers  were  present  in  the  spikelet  which  you  dissected?  (b)  How  many  sterile  flowers?  (c) 
How  many  flowers  in  all?  (d)  Examine  spikelets  in  various  parts  of  the  head  in  order  to 
determine  whether  or  not  the  number  of  flowers  per  spikelet  is  the  same  throughout  the 
spike,     (e)     In   what   part   of  the   spikelet  are   the  sterile  flowers  usually  found? 

The  central  axis  of  the  spikelet  is  known  as  the  rachilla  (literally  a  little  rachis)  and  is 
most  evident  as  a  support  of  the  sterile  flowers.  The  rachilla  of  the  spikelet  corresponds 
quite  closely  with  the  rachis  of  the  spike. 

13.  (a)  Is  there  any  variation  in  the  number  of  outer  glumes  per  spikelet  in  wheat?  (b) 
Do  the  outer  glumes  most  resemble  the  flowering  glume  or  palea?  (c)  What  do  you  con- 
sider to  be  a  good  definition  of  a  spikelet? 


•The  dimensions  of  the  drawing  are   to   be   five  timet  li-ose  of  the  object. 

37 


14.  A  flower  consists  essentially  of  those  parts  without  which  no  seed  can  be  formed.  A 
flower  must  therefore  have  present  either  stamens  or  pistils,  or  both.  Showy  and  protective 
parts,  such  as  petals,  sepals,  bracts,  and  even  leaves,  are  usually  present  and  help  in  indirect 
ways,  but  never  in  themselves  could  form  seed.  What  we  see  in  the  "flower"  of  a  ripe  head 
of  wheat  is  but  a  part  of  the  original  flower.  A  fair  idea  of  the  original  flower  may  be  ob- 
tained from  a  study  of  Fig.  17.  The  original  wheat  flower  consists  essentially  of  one 
pistil  and  three  stamens.  The  pistil,  like  that  of  most  flowers,  consists  of  ovary,  style,  and 
stigma.  The  stigma  is  the  two-branched,  feathery  body  at  the  top  of  the  pistil.  The  style 
is  short  and  connects  the  stigma  with  the  ovary.  The  ovary  is  the  bulbous  part  at  the  base 
of  the  pistil  and  contains  the  ovule.     The  latter  must  be   fertilized  before  the  wheat  kernel 


~ 


\ 


F    &    H 


C     D  E 


K    L      M 


/ 


N 


Fig.  17.  An  Immature  Wheat  Spikelet  Dissected,  (a)  Whole  spikelet ;  (b-m  inclusive)  spikelet  dissected;  (c, 
a  and  e)  fertile  flower  dissected;  (f,  g  and  h)  sterile  flower  dissected;  (i)  very  small  sterile  flower  not  dissected; 
(j,  k  and  1)  fertile  flower  dissected;  (b)  outer  glume;  (c)  flowering  glume;  (d)  normal  pistil  surrounded  by  three 
stamens;  (e)  palea;  (f)  flowering  glume;  (g)  abortive  pistil  surrounded  by  three  stamens;  (h)  palea;  (j)  palea; 
(k)    normal   pistil   surrounded   by   three  stamens;    (1)    flowering  glume;    (m)    outer  glume.      (Anderson) 

can  form.  The  three  stamens  which  surround  the  pistil  are  made  up  of  the  usual  divisions 
of  filaments  and  anthers.  The  anthers  are  the  yellow  sack-like  structures  in  which  are  found 
the  pollen  grains.  The  filament  is  the  thread-like  structure  which  supports  the  anther..  The 
pollen  grains  are  small,  round,  yellow  bodies.  These  grains  falling  upon  the  stigma,  are 
caught  by  the  feathery  surface  which  at  this  time  is  covered  with  a  sticky  fluid.  Soon 
after    the    pollen    grain    falls    upon    this    surface,    it    bursts    and    sends    out    a    thread    some- 


38 


thing  like  that  sent  out  by  a  germinating  mould  spore.  This  thread  finds  its  way  down  the 
stigma  and  style,  reaches  the  ovule  or  egg  in  the  ovary  and  fertilization  takes  place.  As 
a  result  of  this  fertilization  the  ovary  develops  into  what  is  known  as  the  wheat  kernel, 
(a)  Illustrate  by  means  of  a  diagram  (4"x4")  your  conception  of  the  wheat  flower  during 
the  process  of  fertilization.  Indicate  in  the  diagram  the  following  parts:  ovary,  style,  stigma, 
filaments,  anthers,  pollen  grains,  flowering  glume,  and  palea.  It  is  believed  by  some  scien- 
tists that  the  ovary  of  a  wheat  flower  is  naturally  fertilized  only  by  pollen  from  stamens 
in  the  same  flower,  (b)  In  a  ripe  head  of  wheat  can  you  find  any  remnants  of  the  essential 
parts  of  the  wheat  flower  other  than  the  kernels? 


39 


EXERCISE  XV. 
WHEAT  DESCRIPTIVE  TERMS. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  Twelve  heads  each  of  several  different  types  of  wneat,  such  as 
Turkey  Red,  White  Spring  Emmer,  Blue  Stem,  Little  Club,  Black  Durum.  In  as  far  as  possible  twelve  two-ounce 
samples  of  the  threshed  grain  of  each  of  whatever  head  types   are    used.      Twelve    rulers    or    tape   measures. 

INTRODUCTION.  A  number  of  simple  descriptive  terms  are  necessary  in  describing  and 
comparing  heads  of  wheat.  The  study  will  demand  close  observation  of  the  material  at  hand 
and  careful  study  of  descriptive  terms. 

DIRECTIONS.  First  read  the  following  "Outline  of  Descriptive  Terms  Applicable  to 
Wheat,"  and  at  the  same  time  make  a  casual  study  of  the  wheat  samples  with  which  you  are 
supplied.  Then  turn  to  the  "Descriptive  Form  for  Wheat"  following  the  outline,  and  fill 
in  a  careful  description  of  each  sample. 

Outline   of   Descriptive   Terms   Applicable  to  Wheat. 
I.    Spike 

1.    Color 

(a)  Whitish 

(b)  Yellowish 

(c)  Reddish 

(d)  Bluish 

(e)  Blackish 
2.    Shape 

(a)  As   seen   from   the   side. 

(1)  Tapering — tapering   gradually  toward  tip. 

(2)  Spindle    shape — tapering    both  ways. 

(3)  Clubbed — larger  at  tip  than  below. 

(4)  Uniform — about  the  same  diameter  throughout. 

(b)  As  seen  from  the  end. 

(1)  Square. 

(2)  Broad  on  furrow  side. 

(3)  Broad   on  spikelet  side. 

3.  Spacing  of  spikelets  on   the  rachis. 

(a)  Close. 

(b)  Medium. 

(c)  Wide. 

4.  Beards. 

(a)  Presence. 

(1)  Bearded. 

(2)  Partly  bearded. 

(3)  Beardless. 

(b)  Length. 

(1)     Short— less  than  two  inches  in  leng^i 
(b)     Medium — two  to   four  inches  long. 
(3)     Long — more   than   four   inches  long. 

(c)  Position    relative    to    one    another. 

(1)  Parallel. 

(2)  Spreading. 

5.  Length — stated  in  inches. 
II.  Spikelet. 

1.  Arrangement  of  glumes. 

(a)  Compact. 

(b)  Medium. 

(c)  Loose. 

2.  Number  of  Kernels.     1,  2,  3,  4,  etc.. 

40 


III.  Kernels. 

1.  Color. 

(a)  Whitish. 

(b)  Yellowish. 

(c)  Deep  red 

(d)  Clear  red. 

(e)  Clear  amber. 

2.  Hardness. 

(a)  Soft. 

(b)  Medium. 

(c)  Hard. 

(d)  Very  hard. 

3.  Texture  as  shown  by  cross  section. 

(a)  Starchy. 

(b)  Dull. 

(c)  Vitreous. 

(d)  Very  vitreous. 

4.  Weight  of  100  kernels. 


DESCRIPTIVE  FORM  FOR  WHEAT. 


Variety 
Name 

Variety  " 
Name. 

Variety 
Name. 

Variety 
Name. 

I.       Spike — 

2.     Shape — 

4.     Beards — 

(b)     Length    

II.     Spikelet— 

1.     Arrangement   of  glumes. 

III.  Kernels. 

1.     Color    

3.    Texture   

4      Weight  of  100  kernels.. 

■ 

41 


EXERCISE  XVI. 

TYPES  OF  WHEAT  AS  DETERMINED   BY    REGIONAL   CHARAC- 
TERISTICS. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  Two-ounce  samples  of  threshed  wheat  as  follows:  Turkey  red 
wheat  from  western  Illinois,  eastern  Nebraska  and  western  Nebraska;  Durum  wheat  from  western  Nebraska  or 
Kansas;  northern  spring  wheat  from  one  of  the  Dakotas;  forty-fold  wheat  from  the  Pacific  Coast;  two  ounces  of 
bull-less  barley. 

Part  A.     Distribution  of  Wheat  in  the  United  States. 

1.  On  the  accompanying  outline  map  of  the  United  States  show  in  a  general  way  the  dis- 
tribution of  wheat  by  placing  a  dot  in  each  state  for  every  500,000  bushels  raised.  (Notice  that 
the  figures  are  given  in  thousands.) 


The  Average  Production  and  Acreage  of  Wheat,  by  States,   1909-1912. 


1,000  1,000 

State                             Bushels  Acres 

1.  Maine    77  3 

2.  Vermont '24,  1 

.  3.     New  York 6,791  331 

4.  New  Jersey  1,492  83 

5.  Pennsylvania    21,144  1,266 

6.  Delaware  1,861  113 

7.  Maryland 9,584  599 

8.  Virginia   8,812  734 

9.  West  Virginia   2,926  230 

10.  North  Carolina   5,650  581 

11.  South  Carolina    708  70 

12.  Georgia    1,300  128 

13.  Ohio    27,772  1,859 

14.  Indiana    28,391  1,984 

15.  Illinois    32,077  2,109 

16.  Michigan   14,581    .  865 

17.  Wisconsin    3,221  177 

18.  Minnesota    74,776  3,988 

19.  Iowa    10,175  589 

20.  Missouri    28,914  2,024 

21.  North  Dakota   93,075  8,257 


1,000  1,000 

State                            Bushels  Acres 

22.  South  Dakota    40,191  3,560 

23.  Nebraska    45,768  2,819 

24.  Kansas   71,119  5,307 

25.  Kentucky    8,831  728 

26.  Tennessee   7,548  681 

27.  Alabama    278  250 

28.  Mississippi 70  7 

29.  Texas 7,666  615 

30.  Oklahoma    17,155  1,357 

31.  Arkansas   921  84 

32.  Montana 11,399  460 

33.  Wyoming 1,528  61 

34.  Colorado 8,865  409 

35.  New   Mexico    953  47 

36.  Arizona    613  24 

37.  Utah    4,849  209 

38.  Nevada  835  30 

39.  Idaho    12,830  474 

40.  Washington    45,220  2,183 

41.  Oregon   16,513  779 

42.  California 7,758  469 


Part  B.     The  Effect  of  Environment. 

2.  Describe  the  color,  hardness  and  texture  of  a  sample  of  Turkey  Red  wheat  from  West- 
ern Illinois;  Turkey  Red  wheat  from  Eastern  Nebraska;  Turkey  Red  wheat  from  Western 
Nebraska.  Record  this  data  in  the  following  form  and  in  addition  record  data  concerning  the 
rainfall  and  altitude  of  the  places  mentioned.  Data  for  rainfall  and  altitude  may  be  secured 
from  Figures  18,  19,  20  and  21,  pages  45,  46,  47  and  48. 


Description  of   Wheat 

Environmental  Factors 

Turkey  Red  Wheat 
from — 

Color 

Hardness 

Texture 

Rainfall 

Altitude 

42 


(a)  Proceeding  westward  from  Western  Illinois,  what  changes  occur  in  rainfall  and  alti- 
tude? (b)  What  corresponding  characteristics  occur  in  the  physical  characteristics  of  the 
wheat  kernel? 

3.  From  your  general  knowledge,  give  the  best  answers  that  you  can  to  the  following 
questions: 

Which  place  mentioned  above  has  the  greatest  average  wind  velocity?  The  driest  air? 
The  most  hot  winds?  The  highest  rate  of  evaporation?  The  greatest  extremes  of  summer 
heat?     The  most  disastrous  drouths? 

4.  Fig.  22,  page  49,  should  give  you  a  general  idea  of  the  principal  wheat  regions  of  the 
United  States,  (a)  Describe  the  color,  hardness,  and  texture  of  a  sample  of  Durum  wheat 
from  extreme  Western  Nebraska  or  Kansas;  (b)  Northern  Spring  wheat  from  one  of  the 
Dakotas;   (c)   Forty  Fold  wheat  from  the  Pacific  Coast  region. 

5.  (a)  With  respect  to  rainfall  and  altitude,  how  does  the  Durum  wheat  district  com, 
pare  with  the  country  to  the  east  of  it?  (b)  Are  the  characteristics  of  the  Durum  wheat 
kernel  in  harmony  with  its  environment? 

6.  (a)  Why  is  spring  wheat  the  dominant  wheat  in  the  northern  spring  wheat  country, 
while  winter  wheat  is  the  dominant  wheat  in  the  region  to  the  south?  (b)  How  does  the 
rainfall  and  altitude  of  the  northern  spring  wheat  country  compare  with  that  of  Western  Illi- 
nois?    (c)     What  effects  of  such   environment  can  you  observe  in  the  wheat? 

7.  (a)  From  your  general  knowledge,  what  can  you  recall  of  the  forest  growth  in  the 
northern  Pacific  Coast  region?  (b)  What  does  this  indicate  as  regards  rainfall  and  general 
favorableness  for  plant  growth?  (c)  Wheats  grown  in  this  region  should  theoretically  have 
what  characteristics?  (d)  On  examination,  do  you  find  that  the  wheat  kernels  have  these 
characteristics? 

Part  C.     Uses  of  Wheat  as  Determined  by  Physical  Properties  and  by  Composition. 

8.  Thoroughly  chew  a  small  measured  quantity  of  Northern  Spring  wheat.  Be  very  care- 
ful to  swallow  only  what  is  naturally  and  unavoidably  carried  away  by  the  saliva.  After  a 
few  minutes  a  yellowish  gummy  material  "wheat  gum"  will  be  left  in  the  mouth.  You  will 
notice  particles  of  bran  caught  in  this  gum.  The  greater  part  of  the  bran  may  be  rubbed  out 
by  working  between  the  fingers  and  washing  out  in  water.  This  leaves  almost  pure  "wheat 
gum,"  technically  known  as  gluten.  It  is  this  gluten  content  in  wheat  which  enables  us  to 
make  from  wheat  flour  a  light,  porous  bread. 

9.  (a)  In  a  similar  manner  chew  an  equal  quantity  of  hull-less  barley,  and  see  if  you 
can  obtain  any  gluten,  (b)  Can  you  see  any  reason  why  wheat,  as  compared  with  barley, 
is  a  favortie  bread  stuff? 

10.  Different  wheats  vary  greatly  in  gluter.  content.  Chew  a  small  measured  quantity  of 
Pacific  Coast  wheat.  Do  you  observe  any  difference  in  the  amount  and  elasticity  of  the  gluten 
obtained  from  this  wheat  as  compared  with  that  obtained  from  Northern  Spring? 

11.  (a)  What  relation  seems  to  exist  between  gluten  content  and  the  properties  of 
wheat  such  as  color,  hardness,  and  texture?  (b)  What  relation  seems  to  exist  between  gluten 
content  and  environment? 

12.  For  making  various  wheat  products  of  the  best  quality,  wheats  with  different  per  cents 
of  gluten  are  required.  Collect  as  much  evidence  as  possible  on  this  point  by  observing 
advertisements  of  flour  and  various  other  wheat  products  in  magazines  and  other  high-class 
periodicals.  Also  notice  what  is  printed  on  boxes  and  cartons  of  crackers,  breakfast  foods,  maca- 
roni, and  other  special  wheat  products.  It  will  be  well  to  bring  as  much  of  this  material  to 
school  as  can  easily  be  collected. 

44 


to 

■0 


g 

3 


46 


47 


48 


■a 


49 


EXERCISE  XVII. 
'    A  DETAILED  STUDY  OF  THRESHED  WHEAT. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  Each  student  should  be  supplied  with  ten  or  twelve  two-ounce 
samples  of  wheat  illustrating  as  great  a  range  in  quality  as  is  possible  for  you  to  obtain.  Wheats  raised  locally, 
and    samples   of   must,    smut,    yellowberry,    bleaching,   etc.,  will  add  much  to  this  study. 

Explanation  and  Directions. 

INTRODUCTION.  To  the  untrained,  wheat  is  merely  wheat.  The  kernels  have  little 
more  individuality  than  so  many  shot.  A  little  study  and  close  observation  will,  however, 
show  that  the  individual  kernels  may  differ  greatly  from  one  another.  In  precisely  the  same 
manner,  in  a  dozen  or  even  one  hundred  lots  of  wheat,  there  will  be  found  one  lot  as 
superior   to   the   others   as   one   ball   team    in  a  locality  is  superior  to  the  rest. 

To  secure  a  sample  of  wheat  for  study,  count  out  one  hundred  kernels  or  their  equiva- 
lent, taking  kernels,  impurities,  etc.,  just  as  they  come.  In  counting,  two  half  kernels  of 
wheat  should  be  considered  as  one.  If  trash  or  other  foreign  matter  is  present,  include 
it  in  your  count  just  as  if  it  were  wheat.  For  instance,  a  grain  of  barley  would  be  about 
equivalent  in  weight  to  a  kernel  of  wheat.  Two  or  three  weed  seeds  may  in  some  cases 
equal  in  weight  a  kernel  of  wheat  and  may  be  counted  as  such.  For  all  major  considera- 
tions involving  counts  and  a  determination  of  per  cent,  divide  the  sample  up  into  groups 
which  will  show  as  many  as  possible  of  the  qualities  specified  under  the  particular  considera- 
tion. Record  percentage  results  in  the  proper  spaces  in  the  blank  form  given  on  page  53. 
For  example,  in  the  study  of  "Naturalness  of  Color,"  divide  the  sample  (one  hundred  ker- 
"nels  or  the  equivalent  of  one  hundred  kernels)  with  respect  to  the  color  of  the  various 
kernels.  Thus  you  may  find  present  in  some  samples  all  three  degrees  of  color,  natural, 
bleached  and  darkened.  Record  in  the  blank  form  the  number  or  per  cent  of  kernels  present 
in   these   respective   divisions. 

Whenever  one  is  studying  the  wheat  sample  for  qualities  which  have  to  do  only  with 
the  wheat  kernels  and  not  the  impurities  present,  as  in  "Naturalness  of  Color,"  it  is  not 
entirely  accurate  to  count  each  kernel  as  one  per  cent.  The  truth  of  this  statement  is 
seen  in  the  fact  that  after  the  wheat  kernels  are  all  sorted  with  respect  to  color,  or  other  such 
qualities,  the  total  of  all  kernels  will  not  usually  give  exactly  100  per  cent  because  of  foreign 
matter  present.  Calling  each  kernel  one  per  cent,  however,  is  sufficiently  accurate  for  our 
purposes  in  this  study.  The  quality  of  wheat  is  discussed  here  largely  from  the  miller's 
viewpoint.  It  is  a  fact  that,  except  possibly  in  a  few  cases  such  as  lessened  quality  due  to 
a  little  shriveling,  wheat  which  is  faulty  as  a  milling  wheat  is  at  least  as  faulty  for  seeding 
purposes. 

1-4.  COLOR,  HARDNESS,  TEXTURE,  AND  GLUTEN  CONTENT.  Wheats  vary 
in  color  from  whitish  to  deep  red.  Color,  as  you  have  observed  in  previous  study,  depends  to 
some  extent  upon  variety  and  a  great  deal  upon  environment.  Furthermore,  you  have  ob- 
served that  color  bears  a  close  relation  to  hardness,  texture,  and  gluten  content.  The  darker 
wheats  in  general  have  a  higher  gluten  content,  but  where  the  lighter  colored  wheats  are 
translucent  and  hard  (clear  amber)  they  may  have  even  more  gluten  than  have  most  dark 
wheats.  This  is  best  illustrated  in  the  durum  wheats  grown  at  their  best  in  the  semi- 
arid  regions.  Such  wheats  are  of  a  light  yellowish  color  (clear  amber)  but  are  of  vitreous 
texture,  flinty  hardness,  and  high  .gluten  content.  In  other  words,  color,  which  is  more  of 
a  superficial  and  external  quality  is  apparently  not  so  responsive  to  environment  as  are  char- 
acteristics   like    hardness    and    texture    which  are  more  closely  related  to  internal  composition. 

In  hard  winter  wheats,  "yellow  berry"  is  particularly  objectionable  since  it  does  not  mill 
as  economically  as  it  should  in  mills  fitted  for  handling  only  hard  wheats.  It  produces  a 
flour  which  lacks  in  whiteness  and  gluten  content.  A  kernel  of  wheat  slightly  "yellow 
berried"    may   show   only   a    small   pot   of   yellow,  as  seen  through  the  cheek  of  the  kernel, 

50 


particularly  near  the  center.  Suspicion  of  the  presence  of  "yellow  berry"  in  a  kernel  is  veri- 
fied if,  on  cutting  through  the'  kernel  at  this  point,  a  body  of  soft,  white  starch  is  found.  A 
kernel  badly  "yellow  berried"  may  be  entirely  yellow,  starchy,  and  soft,  excepting  possibly 
a  little  vitreous  starch  near  either  end.  "Yellow  berry"  should  not  be  confused,  as  has  often 
been  done,  with  plain  bleaching.  "Yellow  berry"  is  essentially  internal  and  is  present  in  the 
kernel  by  the  time  the  wheat  is  ripe.  Bleaching,  which  is  due  to  exposure  to  weather,  is 
largely   external   and   occurs   after   the   wheat  is  ripe. 

5.  LUSTER.  Sound,  plump,  well  matured  wheat,  which  has  been  favored  with  good 
weather  and  has  been  properly  cared  for,  normally  has  externally  a  live,  glossy  appearance. 
Such  wheat  is  said  to  have  a  bright  luster.     Wheat  of  the  opposite  kind  is  dull  in  appearance. 

6.  NATURALNESS  OF  COLOR.  Wheat  which  has  been  cut  as  soon  as  ripe,  shocked 
properly,  and  threshed  or  stacked  promptly  has,  as  a  rule,  the  color  natural  to  the  variety 
and  the  region.  The  darker  wheats,  especially  when  grown  in  regions  of  frequent  summer 
rains,  bleach  much  more  in  a  given  time  than  do  the  lighter  colored  types  grown  in  such 
sections  as  those  of  the  Pacific  Coast  where  harvesting  seasons  are  almost  free  from  rains. 
Bleached  and  darkened  kernels  may  be  present  in  the  same  lot  of  wheat.  Thus  the  bleached 
kernels  come  from  the  outside  of  the  shock  where  sun  on  the  one  hand  and  dew  and  rr.in 
on  the  other,  frequently  alternate.  Darkened  kernels  may  lie  deeper  in  the  shock  where  the 
grain,  once  excessively  wet,  cannot  quickly  dry  out  again. 

7.  SOUNDNESS  is  of  the  utmost  importance  in  wheat.  The  flour-making  value  of  a 
wheat  probably  depends  more  upon  this  point  than  upon  any  other  major  consideration. 
Wheat  which  is  badly  afflicted  with  any  of  the  faults  itemized  in  the  "Descriptive  Form"  under 
this  heading  becomes  practically  worthless  for  flour  making,  and  is  usually  used  for  some 
other   purpose   such   as   a   food   for   stock. 

Injury  to  wheat  by  insects  usually  takes  one  of  two  forms.  In  the  first  form  only  the 
germ  may  be  eaten  away.  In  the  second  form  the  entire  interior  of  the  kernel  may  be 
eaten  out,  only  the  hull  being  left.  The  first  form  of  injury  is  slight.  The  second  is  us- 
ually serious  and  may  make   the  wheat  worthless  except  as  food  for  stock. 

Sprouted  kernels  generally  have  a  dull,  puffed,  peculiar,  appearance.  The  damage  to 
the  kernel  may  usually  be  measured  by  the  length  of  the  sprout.  The  sprout  is  a  discolored, 
tiny,  thread-like  body  projecting  from  the  kernel  at  the  end  opposite  the  brush  and  on  the 
side  opposite  the  suture.  It  resembles  somewhat  a  small  dry,  withered  rootlet.  In  slightly 
sprouted  wheat  only  the  very  tip  of  the  sprout  may  be  visible.  In  advanced  cases  a  long 
sprout  and  the  three  little  rootlets  of  the  germinating  wheat  plant  may  be  seen.  Badly 
sprouted  wheat  kernels  are  usually  much  shrivelled,  have  little  weight  and  are  practically 
worthless   for   flour   making. 

Stack  and  bin  burnt  wheat  is  usually  dark,  in  color,  particularly  at  the  germ  end  of 
the  kernel.  This  is  especially  true  of  stack-burnt  grain.  Though  such  wheat  should  be 
avoided  for  use  as  seed,  the  damage  for  milling  purposes  may  be  slight.  In  mild  cases  the 
damage  is  confined  mainly  to  the  germ  and  hull,  but  in  severe  cases  the  kernel  may  be  prac- 
tically ruined  for  flour  making.  Bin  burning  may  cause  a  grayish,  instead  of  a  dark  color. 
Grain   heating  badly   in   the   bin   may,   if  undisturbed,    become    extremely    musty. 

Scab  in  wheat  is  a  fungus  disease  which  attacks  the  head  and  kernel.  A  scabby  kernei 
may  appear  to  be  only  very  much  shrivelled.  A  badly  scabbed  kernel  has  an  ashy  gray 
color,   a   dead   appearance   and   is   worthless   for  milling  purposes. 

Covered  smut  is  a  fungus  disease  which  attacks  the  wheat  kernel.  The  smut  destroys 
the  entire  kernel  excepting  the  hull.  This  outside  casing  preserves  roughly  the  shape  of 
the  wheat  kernel  but  is  usually  shorter  and  more  nearly  round.  It  also  has  a  peculiar  grayish,  dark 
color  and  a  dead  appearance.  When  pinched  between  the  fingers  it  is  easily  crushed,  at  d 
.8  seen  to  be  filled  with  black,  powdery,  ill-smelling  smut  pores.  The  disease  seems  to  be 
more  common  in  spring  wheat  than  in  fall  wheat. 

51 


8.  PLUMPNESS.  Wheat  of  great  weight  per  measured  bushel  is  necessarily  rather 
plumft,  but  wheat  merely  because  it  is  plump,  does  not  necessarily  "test"  extremely  high. 
(See  discussion  of  weight  below).  The  harder  wheats,  however,  such  as  durum,  northern 
spring,  and  hard  winter,  often  test  well — sixty  pounds  or  more — without  being  very  plump. 
Such  wheats,  which  can  neither  be  described  as  truly  plump  nor  badly  shriveled,  may  be 
said  to  be  "framy."  The  heavy  weight  of  "framy"  wheat  is  probably  largely  due  to  the 
density  of  the  kernel  contents.  Shriveled  wheat  is  caused  by  unfavorable  conditions  such  as 
hot  winds,  extreme  drouth  and  insect  attacks. 

9.  PURITY.  Wheat  of  great  purity  should  be  all  of  one  class  or  variety  and  must  be 
free  from  other  grains,  weed  seed,  trash,  and  soil.  Though  the  miller,  in  order  to  attain 
certain  results,  may  wish  to  mix  wheats,  he  desires  to  mix  them  in  certain  definite  propor- 
tions and  in  his  own  way.  Different  wheats  may  also  need  different  treatments  before  grind- 
ing. In  such  cases  mixtures  are,  of  course,  difficult  to  handle.  Wheat  should,  therefore,  be 
true  to  class,  type,  or  name. 

Other  grains.  Grains  other  than  wheat,  while  nourishing,  do  not  make  light  bread  and 
have  no  place  mixed  with  milling  wheat.  The  miller  looks  upon  such  grain  essentially  as 
weed  seed. 

Weeds,  trash,  and  soil.  The  seeds  of  various  weeds  are  frequently  found  in  milling 
wheat.  Among  the  more  common  and  troublesome  are  yellow  foxtail,  or  pigeon  grass, 
mustard,  and  cockle.  Some  weed  seeds  give  flour  a  bitter  taste  and  bad  odor.  Flour  made  from 
uncleaned   wheat   badly   infested    with    cockle    seed,   is  poisonous. 

10.  ODOR.  When  wheat  is  either  very  musty  or  very  smutty,  the  fact  can  easily  be 
detected  by  the  odor.  The  smell  of  must  is  acrid  and  irritatii.g,  while  that  of  smut  is  foul. 
Usually  very  smutty  wheat  has  many  smut  balls  present.  Flour  made  either  from  very 
musty  or  very  smutty_  wheat  is  ill  flavored  and  unfit  for  human  consumption.  Such  wheat 
should  be  used  only  as  food  for  stock. 

t 

11.  WEIGHT  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  KERNELS.  Count  out  one  hundred  kernels  of 
wheat,  using  no  kernels  of  foreign  grain,  weed  seed,  or  trash.  Considerable  difference  will 
be    found    between    the    weight   of   one    class    or   variety   of   wheat   and   another. 

12.  WEIGHT  PER  BUSHEL.  Originally  a  bushel  of  grain  meant  a  quantity  of  grain 
which  would  fill  a  vessel  of  a  definite  volume,  i.  e.,  a  bushel  measure  (2150.42  cubic  inches). 
Nowadays  a  bushel  of  grain  means  a  certain  weight  which  has  been  agreed  upon  and  enacted 
into  law.  Thus  a  man  buying  a  bushel  of  wheat  buys  it  at  its  legal  weight  of  00  pounds,  re- 
gardless of  its  volume.  Though  there  are  greater  extremes,  a  measured  bushel  of  wheat  sel- 
dom weighs  less  than  SO,  or  more  than  63  pounds.  Though  the  miller  buys  his  wheat  by 
weight  alone  he  still  desires  that  a  bushel-  measure  filled  with  wheat  weigh  heavily.  There- 
fore grain  buyers  use  a  small  steel-yard  and  bucket,  called  a  tester,  to  determine  how  much  a 
bushel  by  volume  (2150.42  cubic  inches)  actually  weighs.  The  weight  thus  secured  is  called 
the  "test."  The  miller  finds  that  wheat  which  tests  low  has  small,  shriveled  kernels.  Such 
kernels  have  a  relatively  high  per  cent  of  germ  and  hull.  As  the  miller  uses  for  our  common 
white  flour  only  the  endosperm  of  the  wheat  kernel  and  tries  to  keep  out  of  it  both  germ  and 
hull,  shriveled  wheat  gives  the  miller  a  low  per  cent  of  flour.  For  this  reason  he  will  not  pay 
as  much  for  sixty  pounds  of  light,  shriveled  wheat  as  fur  sixty  pounds  of  heavy,  plump  wheat. 
Very  light  weight  per  bushel  is  usually  due  either  to  sprouting  or  shriveling  as  previously  ex- 
plained. 


52 


DESCRIPTIVE  FORM  FOR  THE  DETAILED  STUDY  OF  THRESHED  WHEAT. 


1 

Form  of 

Sample  Numbers 

Answer 

No. 

No. 

Xo. 

No. 

1.     Color — ■ 

Whitish 

I 

i! 

* ' 

C  ' 

Clear  red   



'  |     

2.     Hardness — 

Soft            

•; 

'; 

Hard             

- ;   

3.     Texture — 

Starchy     

Dull     

' ;     

1 

<; 

-; 

4.     Gluten    Contents- 

';       

r; 

High        

'; 

5.     Luster — 

Dull 

6    Naturalness  of  Color — 

% 

' ;     

' 

r; 

7.     Soundness — 

';       



% 



%.. 

Sprouted    

% 

% 

. 

'; 

'-, 

% -... 





8.     Plumpness — 

<■/,_ 





'; 



-; 



9.     Purity- 

% 





Other   grain    

<■ 





t  ■ 

Soil    



10.     Odor— 

! 

i 

Musty     

Smutty    

11.     Weight  of  lOOker- 

1 





i 

1 

1 





. 



53 


EXERCISE  XVIII. 
COMMERCIAL  GRADING  OF  WHEAT. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  Twelve  bottles  (4  oz.  screw  cap)  of  each  commercial  grade  of 
Hard   Winter   Wheat,   Northern   Spring,   or  Red   Winter. 

INTRODUCTION.  You  have  noticed  in  previous  work  that  environment  has  a  definite 
effect  upon  the  physical  properties  and  composition  of  wheat.  This  relation  between  wheat  and 
environment  is  in  fact  so  well  defined  in  the  United  States  that  the  grain  trade  has  come  to 
recognize  several  regional  types  of  wheat.  (See  Fig.  22,  p.  49.)  Thus  most  winter  wheat 
coming  from  east  of  the  Mississippi  River  is  known  as  Red  Winter.  Most  of  the  wheat 
coming  from  the  two  regions  immediately  west  of  the  Red  Winter  region  is  marketed  either 
as  Northern  Spring  or  Hard  Winter.  Wheat  from  the  belt  just  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
if  of  a  certain  type,  is  classed  as  Durum.  Most  of  the  wheat  from  California,  Oregon,  and 
Washington  goes  on  the  market  as  Pacific   Coast. 

Though  in  most  cases,  environmental  factors  are  the  important  thing  in  determining  the 
market  names  of  wheat,  there  are  a  few  minor  considerations  which  materially  affect  this 
rather  general  classification.  This  is  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  Pacific  Coast  wheat  is  mar- 
keted either  as  Pacific  Coast  Red  or  Pacific  Coast  White,  according  to  color.  Furthermore, 
it  will  be  observed  that  winter  and  spring  wheats,  even  from  the  same  locality,  are  not 
marketed  as  the  same  wheat.  (For  detailed  information  concerning  the  classes  of  wheat  see 
"Grades  of  Grain"  as  adapted  by  the  Grain  Dealers  National  Association.  This  pamphlet 
may  be  obtained  at  a  cost  of  five  cents  per  copy,  from  J.  F.  Courcier,  Secretary  of  the  Grain 
Dealers   National  Association,  Toledo,  Ohio. 

It  is  important  for  millers  and  other  large  dealers  in  wheat  to  know  what  class  of  wheat 
they  are  purchasing,  but  this  information  in  itself  is  not  complete,  since  the  quality  within 
any  one  of  the  several  classes  may  vary  through  wide  limits.  In  Exercise  XVII  you  will 
recall  having  studied  a  large  number  of  factors  which  affect  the  quality  of  wheat  in  general. 
Of  the  factors  studied,  those  most  commonly  used  in  commercial  grading  of  wheat  are — weight 
per  bushel,  soundness,  plumpness,  purity,  and  must.  The  quality  of  Hard  Winter,  or  any 
other  market  class  of  wheat,  will  vary  according  to  the  degree  in  which  it  is  affected  by  such 
factors.  In  order  to  properly  describe  this  variation  in  quality  within  a  given  class,  four  arbi- 
trary standards  have  been  agreed  upon.  These  four  standards,  namely,  grades  No.  1,  2,  3  and 
4,  are  nearly  the  same  for  all  classes  of  wheat. 

Commercial  grading  of  grain  has  become  almost  a  profession  in  itself.  It  requires  long 
experience  and  much  practice  if  one  is  really  to  become  expert  in  the  work.  Many  of  the 
principles  upon  which  this  grading  is  based  can,  however,  be  learned  in  a  short  time. 

DIRECTIONS.  Grade-  the  samples  of  wheat  with  which  you  are  supplied.  Record  notes 
concerning  each  sample  as  illustrated  by  the  following: 

Sample  No.  1. 

Class  Hard  Winter. 

Grade  No.  2. 

Weight  per  bushel  59  lbs. 

Remarks  Dark  colored,  sound,  sweet  and  clean. 

♦Class — Hard  Winter  Wheat.  Grade  No.  1  shall  include  all  varieties  of  pure,  hard  win- 
ter wheat,  sound,  plump,  dry,  sweet  and  well  cleaned  and  weigh  not  less  than  61  lbs.  to 
the  measured  bushel. 

Grade  No.  2  shall  include  all  varieties  of  hard  winter  wheat  of  both  light  and  dark  colors, 
dry,  sound,  sweet  and  clean,  and  weigh  not  kcs  than  59  lbs.  to  the  measured  bushel. 


"From   "Grades   of   Grain   Adopted  by   the  Grain   Dealers'   National   Association.' 

54 


Grade  No.  3  shall  include  all  varieties  of  hard  winter  wheat  of  both  light  and  dark  colors, 
not  clean  or  plump  enough  for   No.  2,  and  weigh  not  less  than  56  lbs.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

Grade  No.  4  shall  include  all  varieties  of  hard  winter  wheat  of  both  light  and  dark  colors. 
It  may  be  damp,  musty,  or  dirty,  and  weigh  not  less  than  50  lbs.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

Class — Northern  Spring  Wheat.  Grade  No.  1  must  be  northern  grown  spring  wheat, 
sound,  clean,  and  of  good  milling  quality  and  must  contain  not  less  than  50  per  cent  of  the  hard 
varieties  of  spring  wheat,  and  weigh  not  less  than   57  lbs.   to   the  measured  bushel. 

Grade  No.  2  shall  be  northern  grown  spring  wheat,  not  clean  enough  or  sound  enough 
for  No.  1  and  must  contain  not  less  than  50  per  cent  of  the  hard  varieties  of  spring  wheat 
and  must  weigh  not  less  than  56  lbs.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

Grade  No.  3  shall  be  composed  of  inferior  shrunken  northern  grown  spring  wheat,  and 
weigh  not  less  than  54  lbs.  to  the  measured  bushel,  and  must  contain  not  less  than  50  per 
cent  of  the  hard  varieties  of  spring  wheat. 

Grade  No.  4  shall  include  all  inferior  northern  grown  spring  wheat  that  is  badly  shrunken 
or  damaged  and  must  contain  not  less  than  50  per  cent  of  the  hard  varieties  of  spring  wheat, 
and  shall  weigh   not  less  than  49  lbs.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

Class — Red  Winter  Wheat.  Grade  No.  1  shall  be  pure,  soft  red  winter  wheat  of  both  light 
and  dark  colors,  sound,  sweet,  plump  and  well  cleaned,  and  weigh  not  less  than  60  lbs.  to  the 
measured  bushel. 

tirade  No.  2  shall  be  soft  red  winter  wheat  of  both  light  and  dark  colors,  sound,  sweet  and 
clean,  shall  not  contain  more  than  5  per  cent  of  white  winter  wheat,  and  weigh  not  less  than 
58  lbs.  to  the  measured  bushel. 

Grade  No.  3  shall  be  sound,  soft  red  winter  wheat,  not  clean  or  plump  enough  for  No.  2, 
shall  not  contain  more  than  8  per  cent  of  white  winter  wheat,  and  weigh  not  less  than  55 
lbs.   to   the   measured   bushel. 

Grade  No.  4  shall  be  soft  red  winter  wheat,  shall  contain  not  more  than  8  per  cent  of 
white  winter  wheat.  It  may  be  damp,  musty  or  dirty,  but  must  be  cool,  and  weigh  not  less 
than  50  lbs.  to  the  measured  bushel. 


55 


EXERCISE  XIX. 
THE  CORN  PLANT. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  Six  roots  of  the  corn  plant  with  about  one  foot  of  the  stalk 
attached.  Six  tassels  of  the  corn  plant  with  about  two  joints  of  the  stalk  attached  Six  ears  w<<h  about  three  inter- 
nodes  and  leaves  attached.  Six  specimens  of  ears  removed  from  the  stalk  in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave  shank  and 
husks  attached  to  the  ears.  Six  immature  cars  of  pod,  pop,  flint,  or  sweet  corn  showing  silks  and  jointed  husks. 
Ears  or  kernels  "i   pod  corn. 

Part  A.     Stems,   Roots,  and   Leaves. 

1.  (a)  Considering  wheat  to  be  a  typical  grass,  what  do  you  observe  to  be  characteristic 
of  the  steins  of  grasses?  (b)  Examine  the  culm  (stalk)  of  a  corn  plant.  Does  it  have  the 
essential  characteristics  of  a  true  grass?  (c)  In  what  way  does  the  corn  stalk  differ  from  that 
of  wheat?     In  gross  internal  structure?     (d)      In  shape   of  cross  section? 

2.  Examine  what  is  unquestionably  a  corn  root,  (a)  In  what  particulars  does  its  struc- 
ture differ  from  that  of  a  grass  stem?  (b)  Examine  the  large  centrally  located  part  of  the 
corn  plant  which  is  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Split  it  so  that  you  can  examine  its 
structure.  Is  this  part  root  or  stem?  (c)  From  what  points  along  this  centrally  located  part 
do  roots  arise?     (d)     What  term  will  describe  the  root  system  of  the  corn  plant? 

3.  Observe  any  evidence  of  roots  arising  from  nodes  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  (a) 
Of  what  use  might  above-ground  roots  be  to  the     plant?       (b)       What,     then,     could     above-. 

ground   roots   properly   be   called? 

4.  There  is  a  connecting  part  between  the  ear  and  the  corn  stalk,  (a)  From  what  point 
on  the  stalk  does  this  "connecting  part"  arise?  (b)  Does  it  appear  that  the  shape  of  the 
stalk  at  this  point  has  been  modified  to  accommodate  this  "connecting  part"?  (c)  From 
your  study  of  the  culm  of  the  wheat  plant  can  you  see  any  reason  why  it  need  not  have  the 
same  shape  as  that  of  corn?  (d)  Split  and  examine  the  "connecting  part."  What  points  in 
its  structure  identify  it  as  a  stem?  (e)  In  general  what  name  do  we  apply  to  a  stem  which 
arises  from  a  main  stem?  (f)  Strictly  speaking  what,  then,  must  we  call  the  stem  which  con- 
nects the  ear  with  the  main  stem  of  the  corn  plant?  (g)  Count,  if  possible,  the  nodes  in  the 
stem  which  supports  the  ear  and  compare  with  the  number  of  nodes  between  the  point  of  at- 
tachment and  the  tassel,  (h)  What  is  the  main  difference  between  the  internodes  of  the 
"connecting  part"  and  those  of  the  main  stem?  (i)  What  does  the  farmer  call  this  "connect- 
ing part"? 

5.  (a)  From  what  points  along  the  main  stem  of  the  corn  plant  do  leaves  arise?  (b) 
What  are  the  two  main  parts  of  a  grass  leaf? 

Notice  that  in  the  grass  leaf  there  is  a  sort  of  joint  between  the  blade  and  sheath. 

6.  (a)  From  what  points  on  the  stem  supporting  the  ear,  do  husks  arise?  (b)  Is  the 
arrangement  of  the  husks  along  this  short  stem  alternate  or  opposite?  (c)  Examine  the  outer 
husks  of  the  ears  of  some  of  the  more  primitive  appearing  corns  such  as  pod  corn,  pop  corn, 
flint  corn,  or  sweet  corn.  Do  you  find  near  the  outer  end  of  any  of  the  husks  a  trace  of  a 
"joint"?  (d)  From  your  observations  what  do  husks  really  appear  to  be?  (e)  What  evi- 
dence can  you  give  in  support  of  your  answer? 

7.  (a)  It  is  possible  to  think  of  all  the  separate  parts  which  you  have  thus  far  studied 
as  branches  of  the  main  stem  of  the  corn  plant.  Assuming  these  parts  to  be  branches  do  they 
have  anything  in  common  as  to  point  of  origin?     (b)     Illustrate. 

56 


Fig.  23.     Immature  car  of  corn  showing  shank,  silks  and  jointed  husks.     (Andcnon.) 


57 


Fig.  24.     A  tassel  of  corn.      (Anderson) 


Fig.  25.     A  Spikelet  From  the  Corn  Tassel,  (a)  Spikelet  as  removed  from  the  corn 

tassel;    (b-i,  inclusive)   spikelet  dissected;    (c,  d,  d,  d,  e)    staminate  flower  dissected; 

(f»  g»  g»  g,  h)  staminate  flower  dissected;   (b)  outer  glume;   (c)  flowering  glume;   (d, 

d,  d)   three  stamens — anthers  prominent;    (e)   palea;    (f)   palea;    (g,  g,  g)   three  sta- 

mnes — anthers  prominent;    (h)   flowering  glume;    (i)  outer  glume.      (Anderson) 

58 


Part  B.     The  Inflorescence. 


Fig.   26. 


8.  You  will  recall  from  your  study  of  wheat  that  the  wheat  flower  is  bisexual,  i.  e.,  sta- 
mens and  pistil  are  found  in  the 
same  flower.  Though  it  is  prob- 
ably true  that  far  back  in  its  his- 
tory the  corn  flower  was  likewise 
bisexual,  it  is  now  unisexual,  i.  e., 
stamens  and  pistil  do  not  occur  in 
the  same  flower,  (a)  Observe  that 
the  corn  tassel  is  covered  with 
spikelets  something-  like  those  of 
wheat.  Notice  that  these  spike- 
lets  usually  occur  in  pairs,  one  be- 
ing sessile  while  the  other  is  sup- 
ported by  a  short  pedicel.  Dissect 
one  of  these  spikelets  as  shown  in 
Fig.  25  p  58.  When  you  have  the 
dissected  spikelet  properly  ar- 
ranged, write  the  names  beneath 
the  respective  parts.  Then  remove 
the  parts  of  the  spikelet  a  little  to 
one  side  and  in  their  places  draw 
figures  about  natural  size.  (b) 
How  many  outer  glumes  do  you 
find  per  spikelet?  (c)  Plow  many 
flowers?  (d)  Do  you  find  any 
pistil  present?  (e)  How  can  you 
distinguish  between  flowering 
glume  and  palea?  (f)  Do  the 
various  glumes  have  the  same  po- 
sition relative  to  each  other  as 
they  do  in  wheat?  (g)  Does  the 
tassel  have  what  appears  to  be  a 
main  axis — the  other  parts  being 
side   branches? 


9.  In  your  study  of  wheat  it 
was  seen  that  the  kernel  devel- 
oped from  the  ovary  of  the  pistil. 
The  same  thing  is  true  of  the  corn 
kernel.  It  must  follow  then  that 
the  ear  of  corn  is  the  inflorescence 
of  pistillate  flowers  of  the  corn 
plant,  (a)  Are  you  able  to  find 
any   stamens    whatever  about   the 


Immature  ear  of  corn  with  silks  displayed, 
periment  Station.) 


(Nebraska  Ex- 


59 


kernels  of  corn  on  the  immature  car  of  corn  which  you  have  at  hand?  (b)  Assuming  the 
corn  kernel  to  be.  the  ovary  of  the  pistil,  locate  and  describe  its  style  and  stigma,  (c)  How 
does  the  length  of  the  style  of 
the  corn  plant  compare  with  the 
length  of  •  the  style  of  the 
wheat  plant?  (d)  What  common 
name  is  applied  to  the  style  and 
stigma  of  the  corn  plant?  (c)  If 
a  paper  sack  is  tied  over  an  ear 
of  corn,  just  before  it  starts  to 
silk,  and  kept  there  for  at  least 
two  weeks  what  will  be  the  result? 
(f)  How  do  you  explain  the  fact 
that  when  yellow  corn  and  white 
corn  are  planted  near  each  other, 
kernels  with  white  caps  will  be 
found  in  the  yellow  corn  and  ker- 
nels with  a  yellowish  tinge  will 
be  found  in  the  white  corn?  (g) 
Can  you  find  anything  about  the 
kernel  of  common  corn  which  sug- 
gest the  glumes  found  in  the  tas- 
sel of  the  corn  plant  and  about 
the  flowers  of  most  other  grasses? 
(h)  Examine  an  ear  of  pod  corn. 
Do  you  find  the  pistillate  flowers 
more  or  less  like  those  of  other 
grasses  than  is  the  case  with  com- 
mon corn? 

10.  (a)  Before  maturity  the 
ear  of  corn  stands  erect.  What 
advantage  is  there  in  holding  this 
position  before  maturity?  (b) 
On  ripening  the  ear  takes  a  hang- 
ing position.  What  advantage  is 
there  in  this  position  after  matur- 
ity ? 

Fig.  27.     Three  immature  kernels  of  corn  showing  attachment  of  silks. 
(Nebraska    Experiment    Station.) 


60 


EXERCISE  XX. 
CORN— DESCRIPTIVE  TERMS. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  Six  samples  of  typical  Ried'a  Yellow  Dent;  six  samples  of 
typical  Learning;  six  sample*  of  Hear  Paw;  at  least  twenty-four  ears  of  other  corn  illustrating  as  great  a  range 
in   shape,   color,   etc.,   as  possible  to   obtain. 

INTRODUCTION.  A  study  of  corn  demands  not  only  close  observation  but  accurate 
descriptive  terms  as  well.  For  this  reason  it  is  necessary  to  make  a  study  of  terms  com- 
monly used  in  careful  descriptions  of  corn.  It  must  be  understood  that  it  is  not  the  purpose 
of  this  study  to  bring  out  good  or  poor  qualities  in  ears  of  corn.  For  instance,  three  dif- 
ferent shapes  of  corn  are  readily  recognized — cylindrical,  tapering  and  very  tapering.  The 
cylindrical  shape  is  considered  ideal,  yet  such  experimental  tests  as  have  been  made  prove 
for  it  no  superiority  in  yield.  The  primary  idea  of  this  descriptive  work  is  to  point  out  dif- 
ferences in  ears  and  to  suggest  definite  terms  by  which  these  differences  may  be  clearly 
conveyed   from   one   person   to  another. 

DIRECTIONS.  Read  carefully  the  following  explanation  of  descriptive  terms.  Then 
turn  to  the  descriptive  outline  form,  page  65,  and  fill  in  the  description  of  ten  or  more  ears 
"making  use  of  such  terms  as  are  pointed  out  in   in   the   introductory   explanation. 

1.  The  shape  of  an  ear  may  be  described  as  almost  cylindrical,  tapering,  or  very  taper- 
ing. For  example,  typical  Ried'a  Yellow  Dent  approaches  the  cylindrical  while  Learning  us- 
ually tapers  considerably. 


Figs.   28-30. 

Shapes  f.i  Ears. 

Cylindrical  Tapering  Very  tapering 

(Anderson.) 

2.  The" length   and   circumference   may   be  slated  in  inches. 

3.  The   color   of   a   variety   is   usually  yellow,  white,  red  or  variegated. 

4.  Terms  descriptive  of  indentation  of  the  kernel  are  dentless,  dimple  dented,  moderately 
dented,  deeply-dented  and  pinch-dented.  Sometimes  the  crown  of  the  kernel  takes  such  a  form 
as  to  be  properly  described  as  hooked. 


61 


5.  (a)  The  shape  of  the  broad  side  of  a  kernel  may  usually  be  described  as  round,  square, 
keystone,  triangular,  or  shoe  peg.  For  example  typical  kernels  of  flint  corn  are  round, 
while  the  kernels  of  Bear  Paw  tend  strongly  to  the  shoe  peg  shape.  .  (b)  The  shape  of  the 
narrow  side  may  be  described  as  parallel-sided  or  pointed. 


?f>?Ht*t>f> 


Fig.  31.     Kernels  round. 


Fig.  32.    Square. 


Fig.  33.     Keystone. 


Fig.  34.     Triangular. 


Fig.   35.     Shoepeg. 


Fig.   36.      Kernels  parallel-sided. 


KESSSSSffife 


#■■■ 


•£-»•* 


(  Anderson.) 


iifcaifiiiiitm 


Fig.    37.     Kernels  pointed. 


6.     Different  ears  of  corn  vary  as  to  the  spacing  between   the   rows  at   the   crown  of  the 
kernel  and  at  the  cob.     This  spacing  may  be  described  as  wide  or  close. 


62 


7.     The  rows  of  kernels  on  an  ear  of  corn  are  always  in  pairs.     This  arrangement  may  or 
may  not  be  very  evident.     Pairing  may  then  be  described  as  distinct  or  obscure. 


Figs.   38-39. 

Pairing    of    rows. 

Evident.      Obscure. 

(Anderson.) 

8.     At  the  tip  of  the  ear  the  cob  is  either  covered  or  exposed. 


Fig.    40. 

Tip     covered. 

(Anderson.) 


Fig.    41. 
Tip    exposed. 
(Anderson.) 


63 


9.      Butts   of  cars   may    be   enlarged,   symmetrical 
of  the  ear),  or  contracted. 


d.   e.,   i) 


lend    smoothly   with   other  parts 


Fists.   42-44. 

Shapes    of    butts: 

Enlarged.       Symmetrical.      Contracted. 

(Anderson.) 

10.  Though  greater  extremes  frequently  occur,  shank-scars  commonly  range  in  size  from 
the  diameter  of  a  dime  to  that  of  a  twenty— five  cent  piece.  On  medium  size  ears  shank-scars 
having  a  diameter  less  than  that  of  a  dime  are  classed  as  small.  If  greater  than  a  twenty- 
five  cent  piece,  they  are  classed  as  large. 


fit   rx*»» 


Fig.     45.       Shank-scar— Small.  Fig.    46.      Shank-scar— Medium    size.       Fig.    47.      Shank-scar— Large    size. 

(Anderson.) 

11.     The   size   of   the   cob   may   be   described  as  large,  medium  or  small; 


64 


DESCRIPTIVE  OUTLINE  FOR  CORN. 


Ear  No. 

Ear  Xo. 

Ear  No. 

Ear  No. 

A.     Ear 

B.     Kernel 
1       Color      

3.     Shape 

* 

- 

(b)      Narrow  side 

C.     Rows 

2.    Spacing 

(b)     At  cob 

3.     Pairing 

D.     Tip 

t 

E.     Butt 

0 

G.     Cob 

- 

65 


DESCRIPTIVE  OUTLINE  FOR  CORN. 


Ear  No. 

Ear  No. 

Ear  No. 

Ear  No. 

A.     Ear 

B.     Kernel 

3.    Shape 

(b)     Narrow  side 
C.     Rows 

/ 

2.    Spacing 

(b)     At   cob 

D.    Tip 

E.    Butt 

G.    Cob 

* 

■ 

66 


EXERCISE  XXI. 
KINDS  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF  CORN. 

Supplies  for  a   Laboratory   Section  of  Twelve.      Six   samples  of  each  of  the  following :    Flour  corn ;   dent  corn ; 
flint   corn  ;   popcorn ;   sweet    corn. 

Part  A.    Kinds  of  Corn. 

1.  Study  carefully  two  or  three  ears  of  each  kind  of  corn  with  which  you  are  provided. 
Record  notes  concerning  each  of  the  six  different  kinds  of  corn  in  the  following  order: 
(In  description   of  dent  corn  omit  parts    (b)  and    (f). 

(a)  Common  name,  (b)  Average  size  of  ears  relative  to  the  average  size  of  the  sam- 
ples of  dent  corn,  (c)  Average  shape  of  ears — cylindrical  or  tapering,  (d)  State  whether  the 
ears  of  the  particular  kind  of  corn  under  consideration  are  relatively  slender  or  short  and 
thick,  (e)  Color  of  ears,  (f)  Size  of  kernels  relative  to  the  size  of  average  kernels  of  dent 
corn,  (g)  Shape  of  kernel.  (See  explanation  of  descriptive  terms  applied  to  corn.)  (h)  In- 
dentation of  kernels.  (See  explanation  of  descriptive  terms  applied  to  corn.)  (i)  Hardness 
of  kernels — soft,  medium,  hard,  very  hard.  (May  be  determined  by  biting  or  cutting  the  ker- 
nels.) 

2.  Recall  that  in  Exercise  XIII  Part  B  you  made  a  careful  drawing,  of  a  typical  section 
of  dent  corn  and  named  the  more  prominent  parts.  Examine,  by  way  of  review,  this  draw- 
ing until  you  again  have  the  gross  structure  of  a  kernel  of  dent  corn  well  in  mind.  Make  a 
neat  drawing  natural  size,  of  a  longitudinal  section  of  a  representative  kernel  of  each  kind  of 
corn,  excepting  dent.     This  section  is  to  be  made  parallel  to  the  broader  face  of  the  kernel. 

.Sometimes  the  kernel  may  be  split  satisfactorily  but  usually  it  will  be  found  necessary  to 
shave  down  from  the  back  side  of  the  kernel  until  the  different  kinds  of  starch  present  are  ex- 
posed to  view.  These  drawings  are  not  meant  t,o  show  any  great  detail  of  the  corn  kernel 
except  the  proportions  of  white  and  vitreous  starch  present.  The  contrast  between  these  two 
forms  of  starch  may  be  brought  out  by  shading  the  portion  showing  vitreous  starch.  Name 
each  drawing. 

3.  Make  a  drawing,  natural  size,  of  the  cross  section  of  a  representative  kernel  of  each 
kind  of  corn.  This  will  give  you  a  study  of  vitreous  and  white  starch  as  seen  in  cross 
section.     Name  each  drawing. 

4.  (a)  What  kind  of  corn  is  raised  in  largest  quantities  in  the  corn  belt?  (b)  Where- 
in does  it  have  an  advantage  over  pod  corn?     (c)     Pop  corn?     (d)     Flint  corn? 


Part  B.     Distribution  of  Corn  in  the  United  States. 

5.  On  an  outline  map  of  the  United  States  show  in  a  general  way  the  distribution  of  corn 
by  placing  a  dot  in  each  state  for  every  1,000,000  bushels  raised.  (Note  that  the  figures  inthe 
table  below  are  given  in  thousands.)  Distribute  the  dots  evenly  over  Iowa,  Illinois,  Indi- 
ana, Ohio,  Missouri,  Kentucky,  Arkansas,  Tennessee.  In  states  bordering  this  group,  namely, 
Nebraska,  Kansas,  Oklahoma,  Texas,  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  Alabama,  Georgia,  South  Caro- 
lina, North  Carolina,  Virginia,  West  Virginia,  Pennsylvania,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota, 
South  Dakota,  the  dotting  should  be  heaviest  in  that  portion  of  the  state  nearest  central  Il- 
linois and  should  gradually  grow  thinner  as  you  move  outward.  States  not  mentioned  in  these 
groups    you    will    notice,    have    little   effect    upon  the  boundary  of  the  corn  belt. 


67 


THE  FOLLOWING  DATA  IS  THE  AVERAGE  OF  THE  DATA  FOR  THE  YEARS 

1906-1910. 


1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 
24. 


State                           1,000  1,000 

bushels  acres 

Iowa  323,292  9,275 

Illinois    355,907  9,776 

Indiana    174,940  4,716 

Ohio  139,602  3,630 

Missouri    2:?,421  7,401 

Kentucky    °V'33  3,359 

Arkansas    4-.,M7  2,420 

Tennessee     £0,722  3,197 

Nebraska    201,315  7,421 

Kansas  166,223  7,585 

Oklahoma    111,155  5,052 

Texas   145,764  6,823 

Louisiana    31,236  1,641 

Mississippi    42,131  2,423 

Alabama    44,115  2,884 

Georgia   50,942  4,006 

S.  Carolina  27,019  1,851 

N.  Carolina   44,978  2,671 

Virginia    45,907  1,889 

W.  Virginia   20,657  730 

Pennsylvania     52,256  1,423 

Michigan     55,840  1,707 

Wisconsin     51,006  1,473 

Minnesota     55,038  1,753 


State  1,000  1,000 

bushels  acres 

25.  S.  Dakota   55,144  1,961 

26.  Maine    579  14 

27.  N.  Hampshire   982  24 

28.  Vermont    2,018  52 

29.  Massachusetts     1,851  44 

30.  Rhode   Island    '373  10 

31.  Connecticut    2,405  55 

32.  New  York   20,271  582 

33.  New  Jersey   9,803  273 

34.  Delaware    5,683  193 

35.  Maryland    21,788  651 

36.  Florida    7,138  621 

37.  Oregon    459  17 

38.  North  Dakota  3,797  172 

39.  Montana    183  7 

40.  Wyoming    102  5 

41.  Colorado   2,892  126 

42.  New  Mexico   1,578  57 

43.  Arizona   347  11 

44.  Utah 268  9 

45.  Nevada    27  1 

46.  Washington   458  18 

47.  Idaho   222  7 

48.  California    1,715  52 


68 


EXERCISE  XXII. 
ADAPTATION  OF  CORN. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  To  avoid  unnecessary  complications  the  varieties  chosen  for 
this  exercise  are  all  white.  Aside  from  color  the  varieties  named  in  each  group  were  chosen  quite  at  random,  but 
are  typical   of  the  corn   grown  in  the  sections  from  which   they  came. 

For  this  exercise  there  are  needed  six  ears  from  at  least  one  variety  from  each  of  the  following  groups : 

"Northwest"    (here   considered   to   be  the   Dakotas   and    northwest    Minnesota).      Payne's    White    Dent,    Pioneer 
White  Dent,  Disco  85  Day  Corn. 
Southern  Illinois  and  Indiana. 

Johnson  County  White,  Horse  Tooth,  Boone  County  White,  Silver  Mine. 
Western  Nebraska. 

Marten's  White   Dent  or  other  local  varieties. 
Central  Nebraska. 

Beckhoff's  White  Dent,   Chaloud's  White   Dent,   St.   Joseph  White,  locally  grown  Silver  Mine. 

Nebraska   White    Prize,    Chase's   White   Dent,   locally  grown  Silver  Mine. 

INTRODUCTION.  Adaptation  in  corn  is  a  suitable  relationship  between  the  corn  plant 
and  the  environment  in  which  the  corn  exists.  Corn  is  said  to  be  adapted  to  a  given  locality 
when  it  produces  as  good  yields  of  sound  corn  from  year  to  year  as  may  be  expected  under 
the  conditions  which  is  must  meet.  Chief  among  these  conditions  are  rainfall,  length  of 
growing  season,  and  kind  of  soil. 

1.  Compare  a  representative  type  of  corn  from  the  "Northwest"  (Payne's  White  Dent, 
Pioneer  White  Dent  or  Disco  Eighty-five  Day  Corn)  with  a  representative  type  from  the 
southeastern  section  of  the  corn  belt  (Johnson  County  White,  Horse  Tooth,  Boone  County 
White,  or  Silver  Mine)   as  to   (a)   size  of  ears;   (b)   depth  of  kernels;   (c)   indentation. 

2.  (a)  Compare  the  rainfall  of  the  "Northwest"  with  that  of  southern  Illinois  and  In- 
diana. Fig.  18,  page  45.  (b)  Compare  the  length  of  growing  season.  See  Fig.  48,  p.  72.  (c) 
Which    section    is    most    subject    to    great    extremes  of  wind,  heat,  and  drouth? 

3.  Compare  a  type  of  corn  which  has  been  developed  and  long  grown  in  western  Nebraska 
with  a  type  long  grown  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  state.  (As  examples  of  typical  western  Nebraska 
corn,  one  may  use  Marten's  White  Dent,  or  other  local  white  varieties.  Good  examples  of 
eastern  Nebraska  corn  may  be  found  in  Nebraska  White  Prize,  Chase's  White  Dent,  and  lo- 
cally grown  Silver  Mine.) 

How  do  corns  from  east  and  west  Nebraska  differ  as  to  (a)  Size  of  ear;  (b)  depth  of 
kernel;   (c)   indentation? 

4.  Now  compare  with  the  two  extremes,  samples  of  corn  developed  and  long  grown  in 
central  Nebraska.  (Good  examples  of  central  Nebraska  corn  are  Beckhoff's  White  Dent, 
Chaloud's  White  Dent,  St.  Joseph  White,  and  locally  grown  Silver  Mine.)  How  does  central 
Nebraska  corn  compare  with  corn  developed'to  the  east  and  to  the  west  of  it? 

5.  (a)  After  a  study  of  Figs.  20,  21  and  49,  pages  47,  48  and  73,  answer  the  following  ques- 
tions: How  does  western  Nebraska  compare  with  eastern  Nebraska  in  rainfall?  Altitude? 
Length  of  growing  season?  (b)  Reasoning  from  the  above  facts  and  from  what  you  have 
heard  of  the  western  parts  of  the  "States  of  the  Plains,"  are  conditions  there  favorable  or  un- 
favorable to  maximum  crop  production. 

6.  (a)  Basing  your  reasons  upon  what  you  have  learned  from  a  study  of  Nebiaska  con- 
ditions and  the  effect  of  these  conditions  upon  corn,  account  for  the  differences  you  have 
observed  between  corn  raised  in  the  "Northwest"  and  that  raised  in  southern  Illinois  and 
Indiana,  (b)  Where,  with  relation  to  the  corn  belt,  would  it  be  necessary  to  travel  but  a 
short  distance   (200-400  miles)    in   order  to  encounter  great  changes  in  the  character  of  corn? 

70 


7.  (a)  Describe  briefly  an  ear  of  corn  which  is  adapted  to  a  locality  having  a  short 
growing  season,  light  rainfall,  and  generally  adverse  climatic  conditions  during  the  growing 
season,  (b)  Describe  an  ear  suited  to  a  locality  having  a  relatively  long  growing  season, 
plenty    of   rainfall,   and   generally    favorable    climatic  conditions. 

8.  What  relation  exists  (a)  Between  latitude  and  length  of  growing  seasons?  (b)  Be- 
tween altitude   and   length   of  growing   season? 

9.  (a)  Would  it  probably  be  advisable  to  take  corn  from  one  extreme  of  environmental 
conditions  to  another?  (b)  Assuming  that  you  raise  corn  in  your  locality,  do  you  consider 
that  you  are  producing  it  under  favorable  or  unfavorable  conditions  when  compared  with 
those  prevailing  in  or  near  the  central  part  of  the  corn  belt?  (c)  What  do  you  consider  to 
be  the  merits  of  home  grown  seed  corn  as  compared   with    that   shipped   in    from   a   distance? 

10.  (a)  Corn  long  grown  on  rich,  moist,  well-drained  bottom  land,  differs  how  from 
that  grown  an  equal  length  of  time  on  thin,  well-drained  upland  soil?  (b)  Do  you  consider 
it  a  good  idea  for  a  man  farming  on  one  of  these  extremes  of  soil  to  get  seed  corn  long 
grown  on  the  other  extreme  of  soil? 


n 


72 


n 


EXERCISE  XXIII. 
CORN   SCORING. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  Twelve  judging  boards  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  50.  Twelve  ten- 
ear   exhibits    of    corn — preferably    exhibits    selected    from    corn  grown   in   your  own   locality. 

INTRODUCTION.  The  purpose  of  the  score  card  is  to  call  attention  to  points  which 
must  be  considered  in  any  intelligent  judging.  It  also  attempts  to  set  a  valuation  upon  these 
points  roughly  proportionate  to  their  importance.  Score  cards  are  used  by  beginners  in 
judging,  whether  the  work  be  with  grain,  fruit,  or  animals.  Since  the  score  card  is  an 
imperfect  device  at  best,  it  will  be  well  to  discontinue  its  use  as  soon  as  you  have  thor- 
oughly learned  what  to  look  for  and  have  had  some  practice  in  the  method  of  procedure.  The 
use  of  a  score  card  gives  results  approaching  accuracy  only  when  the  material  is  at  least 
fairly   normal    in    quality. 

DIRECTIONS.  Read  carefully  the  explanation  of  the  score  card  and  at  the  same  time 
make  a  casual  study  of  the  exhibit  of  ten  ears  which  lies  before  you.  After  you  have  done 
this,  proceed  with  a  more  detailed  study,  as  indicated  by  the  following: 

(a)  Arrange  the  ears  of  your  exhibit  to  show  a  scale  in  shape. 

(b)  After  the  instructor  approves  your  arrangement  in  shapes,  rearrange  the  ears  to 
show  a  scale  in  size  of  shank-scars. 

(c)  A  scale  according  to  enlargement  of  butts. 

(d)  A  scale  based  on  exposure  of  cob  at  tip. 

(e)  A  scale  based  on  the  roughness  of  the  ear. 

(f)  A   scale   based   on   uniformity   of  kernels   throughout  length   of  ear. 

(g)  Arrange  the  ears  in  such  an  order  as  will  cause  the  exhibit  to  appear  as  uniform 
as   possible. 

(h)  Remove  two  kernels  from  one  row  in  each  ear  between  three  and  four  inches  from 
the   butt.     Place   the   kernels   at   the   butt   of   the  ear  from  which  they  are  removed. 

(i)  Score  your  exhibit  of  ten  ears  according  to  the  following  score  card.  (Read  care- 
fully what  is  said  concerning  cuts  and   disqualifications  in  the  explanation  of  the  score  card.) 

(j)     Score  other   exhibits  as  they  are  assigned  to  you  by  the  instructor. 


Fig.  50.      Judging  board  for  corn  exhibits.      (Anderson.) 


74 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  SCORE  CARD  FOR  CORN. 

CUTS.  In  each  case,  unless  otherwise  provided  for,  cut  each  off  ear  in  proportion  to 
the  number  of  points  given  on  the  character  under  consideration.  For  example,  on  "Shape 
of  Ear"  cut  one-half  point  for  each  off  ear.  On  "Condition  of  Germ"  cut  one  and  one-half 
points  for  each  off  ear.  The  above  cuts  are,  of  course,  as  severe  as  is  possible  to  make  and 
are  to  be  used  to  this  degree  only  where  the  ear  is  seriously  faulty  in  the  character  under 
consideration.     For  less  serious  deficiencies  cut  proportionately  less  severely. 

DISQUALIFICATIONS.  One  unquestionably  dead  ear  is  sufficient  to  disqualify  any 
exhibit  competing  at  a  corn  show.  Any  exhibit  scoring  less  than  four  out  of  a  total  of  ten 
points  on  color  of  kernel  and  color  of  cob  is  similarly  disqualified. 

1.  SHAPE  OF  EAR.  (5)  The  shape  of  an  ear  varies  somewhat  with  variety,  but  in  gen- 
eral should  be  nearly  cylindrical.  Since  in  the  growth  of  an  ear  the  butt  develops  first,  an 
extreme  taper  may  indicate  that  the  ear  was  too  large  for  the  conditions  under  whcih  it  was 
grown.  The  circumference  measured  at  one-third  of  the  length  of  the  ear  from  the  butt 
should   equal   three-fourths   the   length.     Cut  one-half  point  for  each  ear  off  in  shape. 

2.  SHAPE  OF  KERNEL.  (5)  The  kernels  should  narrow  gradually  from  crown  to  tip, 
with  straight  edges  that  touch  throughout  almost  their  full  length.  The  two  sides  of  the 
kernel  facing  the  ends  of  the  ear  should  be  parallel.  The  "shoe-peg"  type  of  kernel  is  objec- 
tionable. The  kernels  should  vary  little  in  shape,  as  well  as  in  size  and  indentation,  through- 
out almost  the  entire  length  of  the  ear.  The  rows  should  be  straight  and  should  extend  prac- 
tically the  full  length  of  the  ear.     Cut  one-  half  pqjnt  for  each  ear  having  kernels  off  in  shape. 

3.  BUTT  AND  TIP.  (5)  The  butt  should  be  smoothly  rounded  over  with  straight  rows 
of  uniform  kernels.  The  shank-scar  should  not  be  too  large  but  should  indicate  that  the 
shank  was  of  sufficient  size  to  support  the  ear.  Varying  with  the  size  of  an  ear,  a  shank- 
scar  should  have  a  diameter  not  less  than  that  of  a  dime  nor  greater  than  that  of  a  quar 
ter.  vThe  shank-scar  should  show  that  the  ear  unjointed  cleanly  from  the  shank.  The  cob, 
as    seen   through   the   shank-scar,   should   not   be    hollow. 

The  tip  should  be  covered  well  toward  the  end  with  straight  rows  of  uniform  kernels. 
A  slight  exposure  of  the  cob  at  the  tip  is  not  considered  objectionable.  If,  however,  a  con- 
siderable per  cent  of  the  ears  have  cobs  badly  exposed  at  the  tip,  it  indicates  lack  of  adap- 
tation, i.  e..  the  grower  is  attempting  to  grow  a  larger  ear  than  can  be  properly  filled  under 
the  conditions.  Extremely  tapering  tips  may  likewise  suggest  inadaptation.  Cut  one-half 
point  for  each  ear  having  poor  butt  and  tip. 

4.  COLOR  OF  COB.  (5)  Grain  free  from  evidence  of  mixing  shows  careful  breeding. 
Cobs  of  uncertain  tints  suggest  impure  breeding.  Cut  one-half  point  for  each  cob  entirely  off 
in   color.     Make  other  cuts  proportionately. 

5.  COLOR  OF  KERNELS.  (5)  The  same  rule  holds  as  for  color  of  cob.  Cut  one-half 
point  for  each  badly  mixed  ear — an  ear  with  ten  or  more  mixed  kernels.  Make  other  cuts 
proportionately. 

6.  VIABILITY  AND  SOUNDNESS.  (30)  Of  great  importance.  Seed  that  will  not 
grow  is  worse  than  worthless. 

(a)  Color  and  Luster.  (5)  Kernels  should  have  a  bright  color  and  a  live,  waxy  luster. 
If  the  kernels  have  a  faded  or  darkened  color,  or  have  a  dull,  chalky  appearance,  they  are 
often  of  low  vitality  and  are  not  infrequently  dead.  A  slight  discoloration  at  the  crown 
of   the    kernel    means   little.      Marked    discoloration   occurring   near   the   base   of   the   kernel    is 

75 


especially  significant.  (Under  the  tip  cap,  as  is  evident  when  the  tip  cap  is  broken  off,  is  a 
small  black  spot.  This  black  spot  is  entirely  normal  and  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  discol- 
oration mentioned  above.)  The  surface  of  the  cob  should  be  bright,  clean  and  chaffy.  Cut 
one-half  point  for  each  ear  showing  defective  color  or  luster. 

(b)  Condition  of  Hull.  (5)  Germination  tests  show  that  kernels  with  blistered  hulls 
usually  fail  to  grow  or  are  of  low  vitality — the  lack  of  vitality  varying  with  the  degree  of 
blistering.  A  tiny  blister  at  the  top  or  a  little  wrinkling  over  the  surface  of  the  germ- 
depression  should  not  be  mistaken  for  blistered  hull.  Usually  when  a  kernel  is  definitely 
blistered  it  is  seen  on  the  back  and  edges  of  the  kernel.  Cut  one-half  point  for  each  ear  hav- 
ing kernels  with   blistered  hulls. 

(c)  Condition  of  Germ.  (15)  The  germ  should  be  plump,  bright,  waxy,  and  of  a  creamy 
or  light  yellow  color.  A  pale,  shrunken,  dull-appearing  germ  indicates  poor  vitality.  A  dark- 
colored  one  indicates  injury  from  frost  or  moisture  or  from  both.  Cut  one  and  one-half 
points  for  each  ear  having  kernels  with  poor  germs. 

(d)  Freedom  from  Injury.  (5)  There  should  be  no  missing,  nor  mouldy,  cracked  or  oth- 
erwise injured  kernels — the  two  kernels  removed  for  study  excepted.  Cut  one-half  point  for 
each  ten  kernels  missing  or  ruined  for  seed.  Cut  one-half  point  for  each  twenty  kernels 
slightly  injured  only  at  crown. 

7.     ADAPTATION.    (30)    Adaptation,  is  of  great  importance  in  selecting  seed  corn  and 

is  indicated  in  part  by  the  following: 

(a)*  Size  of. Ear.  (10)  For  every  ten  inches  less  rainfall  than  forty  inches,  deduct  one- 
half  inch  from  the  standard  length  discussed  in  the  footnote  at  the  bottom  of  the  page.  Like- 
wise deduct  an  additional  one-half  inch  for  every  25  days  shortening  of  the  growing  season. 
The  approximate  size  of  ear  for  any  section  may  be  determined  after  a  moment's  study  of 
Figs.  18  and  48,  pages  45  and  72.  To  allow  for  local  variations  and  other  inaccuracies,  it  is 
suggested  that  a  deviation  of  one-half  inch  either  above  or  below  the  standard  determined 
upon  should  be  allowed  before  an  exhibit  be  faulted  for  too  great  or  too  little  size. 

Furthermore,    the    rules    should    not    be    applied  except  under  the  following  conditions: 

First.     The  corn  is  of  the  dent  type.  , 

Second.     The   variety  is   normally  one-eared. 

Third.  The  corn  has  the  usual  ratio  of  circumference  to  length — 3  to  4.  For  instance, 
corn  which  is  extremely  slender  for  its  length  and  has  very  short  kernels  may,  even  in  dry 
countries  with  a  short  growing  season,  be  distinctly  longer  than  the  rule  calls  for.  It  will 
be  noticed,  however,  that  as  the  ear  becomes  disproportionately  long,  the  kernels  are  usually 
abnormally  shortened  and  the  circumference  becomes  proportionately  smaller.  In  other  words, 
in  as  far  as  the  real  size  of  an  ear  is  made  up  of  length,  circumference  and  per  cent  of  corn 
on  the  cob,  the  ear  though  unduly  long  is,  after  all,  practically  normal  in  size.  In  exactly  the 
same  way  corn  of  unusually  great  diameter  of  ear  and  extreme  depth  of  kernel  may  be  grown 
if  the  ears  are  at  the  same  time  abnormally  short. 

Fourth.  The  corn  when  planted  at  the  customary  time  needs  the  full  growing  season  in 
order  to  mature. 

Fifth.  The  corn  is  not  grown  in  such  a  climate  as  that  of  the  Northeastern  States  where 
sunshine  and  summer  heat  have  not  the  intensity  of  the  corn  belt.  In  such  sections,  espe- 
cially near  large  bodies  of  water,  the  ears  seem  to  be  somewhat  smaller  than  rainfall  and 
length  of  growing  season  would  indicate. 


*In  a  previous  lesson  it  was  shown  that  there  is  a  definite  relation  between  climatic  factors  and  size  of  ears 
in  corn.  Though  this  relation  holds  true  in  a  general  way,  an  exact  measure  of  the  effect  of  climatic  factors  upon 
size  of  ear  is  quite  impossible.  Nevertheless  for  the  purpose  of  scoring,  it  will  be  necessary  to  suggest  definite 
limits  as  to  the  size  of  ears  adapted   to  various   corn-growing  sections  of  the  United  States. 

It  is  probably  true  that  southern  Indiana  and  Illinois,  with  a  rainfall  of  forty  to  fifty  inches  and  a  growing 
season  of  from  175  to  200  days.^  as  measured  between  frosts,  is  climatically  the  most  favorable  part  of  the  corn 
belt.  Certain  other  sections,  it  is  true,  have  longer  growing  seasons  and  more  rainfall,  bttt  these  sections  have  cer- 
tain difficulties  which  tend  to  offset  their  apparent  advantages.  Chief  among  these  disadvantages  is  the  fact  that 
rainfall  is  not  so  well  distributed  for  corn  as  in  the  best  part  of  the  corn  belt.  Southern  Illinois  and  Indiana  are 
probably  growing  about  as  large  an  ear  as  is  profitable  to  grow  anywhere.  Assuming  that  the  average  size  of 
the  better  ears  in  this  section  have  for  their  maximum  a  length  of  ten  inches  and  a  circumference  about  equal 
to  three-fourths  of  the  length,  this  standard  becomes  basis  from  which  to  roughly  approximate  sizes  adapted  to 
other  corn -growing  sections  of  the  United  States. 

76 


Sixth.  The  corn  is  grown  where  soil  and  other  conditions  are,  at  least  for  the  section, 
not   seriously   abnormal. 

Cuts.  Determine  your  standard  of  size.  Remember  that  a  deviation  from  your  standard 
of  one-half  inch  either  way  is  allowed  in  both  length  and  circumference,  before  the  ear  is 
faulted.  As  you  measure  the  length  of  each  ear,  record  in  inches  the  excess  deviation  in 
either  direction.  Do  the  same  for  circumference.  Total  the  variations  and  cut  one-half  point 
for  each  inch  excess  variation. 

(b)  Ripeness.  (15)  Ripeness  is  an  essential  quality  in  corn  and  is  indicated  in  part  by 
rigidity  of  cob  and  firmness  of  kernels  on  the  cob.  If  immature,  the  kernels  may  contain 
an  excess  of  moisture.  Immature  kernels,  in  shelling,  often  lose  their  tip  caps  or  have  bits 
of  cob  and  chaff  adhering.  Cut  one  and  one-half  points  for  each  ear  showing  indications  of 
immaturity. 

(c)  *Depth  and  Filling  of  Kernel.  (5)  There  is  a  close  relation  between  filling  of  kernel 
and  indentation.  Thus  one  of  the  best  indications  that  kernels  are  too  long  for  their  environ- 
ment is  excessive  chaffiness  at  the  crown.  Chaffy  kernels  are  usually  "pinch  dented."  The 
short  kernels  characteristic  of  countries  with  little  rain  or  short  growing  seasons  naturally 
tend  to  be  dimple-dented  and  should  not  be  faulted  on  this  score.  In  Other  sections  any 
indentation  ranging  from  moderate  to  deep  dent  need   not  be  faulted. 

Cuts.  In  making  cuts  you  will  have  to  use  your  own  judgment  in  ascertaining  whether 
or  not  a  kernel  is  too  long  or  too  short  for  a  given  section.  For  each  ear  having  a  kernel 
depth  and  indentation  which  you  consider  poorly  adapted  to  the  locality  in  which  it  was 
grown  cut  one-half  ponit. 

8.  UNIFORMITY.  (15)  Because  of  competition  and  in  order  to  simplify  judging,  uni- 
formity is  necessary  in  all  exhibits.  Only  those  characters  given  in  the  score  card  under 
this  head  need  to  be  considered.  For  purposes  of  study,  two  kernels  should  be  removed 
from  one  row  in  each  ear  between  three  and  four   inches   from   the   butt. 


•Extreme  depth  of  kernel  in  a  seed  ear  is  popularly  supposed  to  indicate  great  ability  to  yield.  Experiments, 
however,  even  in  the  more  favored  sections  of  the  corn  be't,  indicate  that  nothing  is  to  be  gained  by  excessive 
depth  of  kernel.  We  have  already  observed  how  rainfall  and  length  of  growing  season  affect  kernel  depth.  Corn 
in  the  various  regions,  where  it  is  a  crop  of  some  importance,  varies  in  depth  of  kernels  from  6/16  to  about  9/16 
of  an  inch.  (This  measurement  is  taken  from  the  kernel  with  the  tip  cap  removed.)  Though  the  depth  of  kernel 
varies   with    environment,   it    is   less  practical   to   set   arbitrary  limits  than  was  the  case  in  "Size  of  Ear.' 

Observation  will  probably  bear  out  the  fact,  that'  though  9/16  of  an  inch  seems  to  be  about  a  maximum 
depth  of  kernel,  conditions  are  seldom  so  favorable  that  a  kernel  depth  of  '/,  inch  will  not  take  full  advantage 
of  the  possibilities  of  soil  and  climate  and  give  the  highest  possible  yields.  When  men  try  to  grow  a  kernel 
deeper  than  conditions  warrant,  the  kernel  fills  as  deep  as  possible  and  then  leaves  at  the  crown  a  wrinkled  mass 
of  chaff.  Such  kernels  are  called  "pinch  dented."  Ears  of  corn  with  such  kernels  are  rough,  frequently  fail  to 
mature,  and  are  hard  to  husk.  Furthermore,  because  this  rough  chaff  has  relatively  little  feeding  value  and  causes 
tenderness  of  mouth,   such  corn  may   not  give  the  best  possible    gains    in    feeding    cattle. 

When    varieties    of    corn    are    bred    with    ears    shorter  than   conditions  warrant,   there   seems  to  be  a   tendency 
to  abnormally   enlarge  the  cob,   lengthen   the  kernel,   or  both.     The   reverse   of   this    statement    is   likewise   true. 
Note:     This   score  card   is   an   adaptation   from  one  long   in  use  in   the   University  of   Nebraska. 


iy 


SCORE  CARD   FOR   CORN. 


Exhibit 

No. 

No. 

No. 

No. 

No. 

No. 

2.  Shape    of    Kernel 5 

3.  Butt    and    Tip 5 

6.     Viability  and   Soundness     (30) 

* 

(b)    Condition    of    Hull 3 

(d)   Freedom    from    Injury S 

7.  Adaptation     (30) 

(a)  Size    of    Ear 10 

(b)  Ripeness     IS 

(c)  Depth  and  Filling  of  Kernel 5 

8.  Uniformity          (IS) 
(a)   Of    Ears      (10) 

Size     2V2 

1 

, 

Shape     ly-i 

Color    iy2 

(b)   Of  Kernels   (5) 

Size     iy2 

1 

78 


EXERCISE  XXIV. 
CORN  JUDGING.* 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  Twelve  judging  boards;  twelve  ten-ear  exhibits  as  used  til  pre- 
vious  lesson;  ten  ears  of  varying  degrees  of  excellence  lettered  in  a  miscellaneous  order;  ten  ten-ear  exhibits  of 
varying    degrees    of    excellence     lettered    in     a    miscellaneous   order. 

DIRECTIONS.  Select  (a)  the  best  shaped  ear  from  the  ten  which  you  have  at  hand. 
Compare  it  with  the  one  which  your  neighbor  has  selected  from  his  exhibit.  Agree  i.pon 
which  one  of  the  two  ears  has  the  better  shape.  Compare  this  ear  with  an  ear  which  two 
of  your  neighbors  have  agreed  upon.  Continue  grouping,  comparing  and  eliminating  until 
the  best  shaped  two  ears  in  the  room  have  been  discovered.  Be  ready  to  state  good  reasons 
why  you  consider  one  of  these  two  ears  better  in  shape  than  the  other. 

In  litfe  manner  select  and  eliminate  ears  as  suggested  by  the  following: 


(c) 
(e) 


(g) 
(0 


Best  shank-scar. 

Greatest  uniformity  of  kernels  in  size 
and  indentation  throughout  the  length 
of  the  ear. 

Best  length   and  shape  of  kernel. 
Finest  example  of  combined  color,  lus- 
ter, and  condition   of  hull. 


(b)     Poorest  shape. 

(d)      Poorest   shank-scar. 

(f)     Least  uniformity  of  kernels. 


(h)     Poorest  length  and  shape   of  kernel, 
(j)     Poorest  condition  of  hull. 


2.  On  the  supply  table  you  will  find  ten  ears  lettered  in  a  miscellaneous  order.  Judge  the 
ears  according  to  their  quality  and  record  your  placing  (best  ear,  first;  second  best,  second; 
etc.)  in  the  fallowing  form: 


Placing  Form  for  Ten  single   Ears.** 


Place    

1st 

2H 
2d 

3d 

4th 

5th 

6th 

7th 

8th 

9  th 

10th 

Students's 

Placing    

Instructor's 
Final 



Number  of 

Points  Off   



100 — 2x[  (Total    number    of    "points    off")]  = Student's  Grade. 


•As  here  used,  the  term  judging  refers  to  the  act  of  placing  ears  or  exhibits  of  corn  in  the  order  ot  excel- 
lence without  the  use  of  the  score  card.  While  we  ordinarily  think  of  corn  judging  only  in  connection  with  corn 
shows    the    farmer    carefully    selecting    seed    ears,    is    quite    as    truly    judging    corn. 

"See  footnote  on  following  page. 


79 


3.     On  the   supply  table  there  are  ten   ten-ear   exhibits   lettered   in   a  miscellaneous   order. 
Place   these  exhibits  of  ten   ears   relative  to  on;  another  as  you  did  the  one-ear  exhibits. 

Placing   Form   for  Ten  Ten-Ear  Exhibits. 


Place 

1st    | 

2d 

3d 

4th 

5th 

6th 

7th 

8  th 

9th 

10th 

Student's 

1 

Instructor's 
Final 

Number  of 

Points  Off   

| 

100— [2X    (Total    number    of   "points    off")]  =  .; Student's  Grade. 


"The  students'  placings  may  be  accurately  graded,  at  least  relative  to  one  another,  in  the  following  manner: 
Letting  each  letter  stand  for  a  certain  ear,  the  second  line  of  the  placing  form  represents  the  placing  of  the 
ears  as  determined  by  the  student.  The  third  line  represents  the  proper  placing  of  the  ears  as  determined  by  the 
instructor.  The  instructor  will  record  on  the  fourth  line  the  number  of  places  any  given  letter  of  the  student's 
placing  is  distant  frcm  the  correct  placing.  The  student's  grade  may  be  readily  calculated  by  multiplying  the 
total    number  of   "points   off"   by    two   and    subtracting    the  product  from  one  hundred. 


Place   

1st 
Q 

2d 

3d 

4th 

5th 

6th 

7th 

8th 

9th 

10th 

Student's 

B 

Z 

M 

A 

F 

R 

c 

Y 

L 

Instructor's 

Final 

Placing   

B 

Q 

A 

M 

1    z 

F 

R 

Y 

C 

L 

Number  of 

Points  Off   

1 

1 

2 

0 

2 

0 

0 

1 

1 

0 

100—  (2X8)  =84  Student's  Grade. 


80 


EXERCISE  XXV. 
SEED  CORN  TESTING. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  Seventy-two  ears  of  corn  ranging  from  very  poor  to  good 
quality ;  twelve  cigar  boxes  lettered  A,  B,  C,  etc. ;  two  yards  of  cheese  cloth  ;  two  yards  of  closely  wcven  muslin : 
twelve  rulers :  twelve  soft  blunt  pencils  for  ruling  on  cloth ;  two  pairs  of  scissors ;  wet  sawdust  sufficient  to  nil 
twelve  cigar  boxes  and  the  germination  box  (30x30x4  inches)  to  a  depth  of  about  two  inches.  One  hundred  ears 
of  ordinary  seed  corn  numbered   1,  2     3,  etc.     Germination  box   (30x30x4  inches). 

Part  A.     The  Relation  of  Certain  Kernel  Defects  to  Germination. 

DIRECTIONS.  Fill  a  cigar  box  about  2/3  full  of  wet  sawdust.  Cut  a  piece  of  cheese 
cloth  and  a  piece  of  closely  woven  muslin  the  size  of  the  box.  With  a  ruler  and  pencil  mark 
off  six  equal  sized  divisions  on  the  cheese  cloth.  Number  and  letter  these  divisions  as  is 
shown  by  the  following  figure. 

(The   lettering  is   correct   only   for   the   cigar  box  lettered  A.) 


~KT 


AT 


J^T 


A4 


A5 


A6 


Wet  the  cheese  cloth  and  lay  it  smoothly  over  the  sawdust.  Now  letter  and  number  six 
ears  of  corn  to  correspond  with  the  six  divisions  ruled  on  the  cheese  cloth.  This  may  be 
done  by  driving  a  pin  or  shingle  nail  through  a  small  piece  of  cardboard,  properly  labeled, 
into  the  cob  at  the  butt  of  the  ear. 

Remove  six  kernels  from  each  ear,  two  from  opposite  sides,  near  the  butt,  likewise  two 
from  the  middle  and  two  from  near  the  tip.  Prior  to  shelling  corn  for  seed  a  certain  per  cent 
is  "nubbed"  from  both  butt  and  tip  and  discarded.  In  removing  the  kernels  for  this  test, 
therefore,  use  only  from  the  parts  of  the  ear  that  would  be  used  as  seed.  Place  the  six 
kernels  in  the  divisions  corresponding  to  the  numbers  of  ears.  Wet  the  piece  of  muslin  and 
lay  ft  over  the  kernels.  Scatter  moist  sawdust  yi  inch  deep  over  the  muslin  and  set  the 
box  aside  in  a  moderately  warm  place  (65°-100°  F.)  where  it  will  not  be  disturbed.  It  will 
be  necessary  to  watch  moisture  conditions  within  the  box  from  day  to  day. 

1.  After  completing  the  above,  remove  six  more  kernels  from  each  ear.  Carefully  ex- 
amine these  kernels,  particularly  the  hulls  and  germs,  to  determine  whether  or  not  there 
are  any  indications  of  lack  of  viability.     Your  notes  may  be  recorded  in  the  following  form: 


Ear 
No. 

Apparent    1     Color 
Ripeness           and 
of  Ear.      J  Luster. 

Condition 

of 

Hull. 

Condition               Your    Pro- 
of                    diction  of 
Germ.              Germination. 

Germination 
as  Determined 
by  Test. 

*. 

.... 

1                      1 

r." " 

81 


After  four  to  six  days,  record  the  results  of  the  germination  test  in  the  form  above. 
The  germination  of  kernels  may  be  described  as  strong,  "weak,"  or  dead.  If  "weak"  kernels  are 
present  it  will  be  well  to  continue  the  test  two  or  three  days  longer.  All  "weak"  kernels  are 
not  necessarily  poor:  they  may  simply  be  slow. 

Part  B.     A  Method  of  Testing. 

2.  Since  it  is  a  waste  of  money  to  test  unnecessarily  an  ear  of  corn  that  will  grow,  it 
is  well  to  learn  whether  or  not  an  individual  ear  test  is  needed.  A  simple  general  or  pre- 
liminary  test   will   allow   one   to   easily   determine  this  point. 

A  general  test  may  be  made  by  selecting  100  ears  from  your  seed  corn  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  insure  that  the  ears  selected  are  representative   of   the   corn   you   are   intending   to 


Fisr.  51. 
A  method  of  testing  individual  ears  of  seed  corn. 


plant.  Remove  one  kernel  from  near  the  middle  of  each  ear  selected.  Place  the  100  kernels 
in  a  pie  tin  or  dinner  plate  germinator.  Set  aside  in  a  warm  place.  It  will  be  necessary  to 
watch  moisture  conditions  from  day  to  day.  As  kernels  germinate  remove  them  from  the 
germinator.     This  will  lessen  the  possibility  of  moulds  interfering  with  the  test.    At  the  close 

82 


of  six  days  call  the  test  complete.  Count  such  kernels  as  have  not  sprouted.  The  differ- 
ence between  this  count  and  100  is,  of  course,  the  per  cent  of  germination.  If  90  per  cent 
or  more  of  the  kernels  have  sprouted,  it  will  probably  pay  to  make  a  test  of  each  ear  of  seed 
corn.  Should  less  than  90  per  cent  sprout,  it  will  probably  pay  to  make  an  individual  ear  test 
as  suggested  by  the  following: 

Make  or  secure  a  box  about  30  inches  square  and  4  inches  deep.  A  box  of  this  size  will 
allow  space  for  100  squares  2}^x2j^  inches,  and  at  the  same  time  leave  a  vacant  space  2l/i 
inches  wide  around  the  edges  of  the  box. 

The  bottom  of  the  germinator  should  not  be  made  too  tight,  for  on  being  wet  up  it  will 
swell  and  warp.  A  good  plan  is  to  leave  cracks  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  wide  between 
the  boards  to  allow  for  expansion.  Cover  these  cracks  on  the  inside  with  thin  strips  of 
wood  nailed  lightly  along  one  edge  only,  or  cover  with  a  cloth. 

The  best  medium  for  holding  the  water  necessary  in  a  germination  test  is  sawdust.  If  saw- 
dust cannot  be  secured,  sand  or  soil  will  answer.  About  two  inches  of  wet  sawdust  should 
be  put  into  the  germinator,  smoothed  and  packed. 

Prepare  as  follows,  a  sheet  of  white  cloth  about  thirty  inches  square  to  be  laid  upon 
the  sawdust:  Mark  upon  this  cloth  one  hundred  spaces  two  and  one-half  inches  square 
(ten  squares  each  way).  This  leaves  a  margin  of  about  two  and  one-half  inches  unused 
on  all  edges.  The  squares  are  numbered  consecutively,  beginning  at  the  upper  left  hand 
corner  and  numbering  across  to  the  right.  Square  11  falls  directly  under  square  1  and  square 
20  under  square   10.     Wet  the   cloth  and  spread  smoothly  over  the  sawdust. 

Before  kernels  are  placed  upon  the  squares  there  must  be  some  system  for  identifying 
each  ear  with  its  corresponding  square  in  the  germinator.  There  are  at  least  two  simple 
ways  of  doing  this:  First:  A  rack  may  be  made  of  1x4  boards  nailed  together  and  form- 
ing a  square  twenty-five  inches  across.  Wires  are  stretched  across  this  both  ways  at  inter- 
vals of  two  and  one-half  inches  and  firmly  secured.  Second:  A  still  simpler  way  is  to  cut 
paper  into  three-fourths  inch  squares.  These  squares  are  numbered  from  1  to  100  and  secured 
to  the  butts  of  the  ears  by  means  of  pins,  tacks,  or  small  nails.  This  is  especially  advisable 
where  many  people  handle  the  ears. 

Six  kernels  should  be  taken  from  each  ear,  two  near  the  butt,  on  opposite  sides  of  the  ear, 
two  from  the  middle  and  two  from  near  the  tip.  Remove  the  kernels  with  a  knife  blade 
by  prying  at  their  edges.  Pulling  in  this  manner  will  not  injure  the  "germs."  Place  the  six 
kernels  on  the  proper  square  with  the  germ  side  up.  The  next  step  is  to  cover  the  loaded 
squares  with  a  second  cloth  for  protection.  Muslin  of  firm  weave  is  best  for  this  purpose. 
This  shield  cloth  should  be  about  thirty  inches  square.  Wet  the  cloth  and  lay  it  smoothly 
over  the  kernels.  Take  a  large  cloth  (almost  anything  will  do),  and  lay  it  over  the  ger- 
minator and  cover  with  an  inch  of  wet  sawdust.  Fold  the  edges  over  the  sawdust.  If 
the  cloth  is  not  too  small  it  will  completely  cover  the  top  of  the  sawdust,  making  a  sort  of 
pad  or  mattress. 

The  germinator  should  be  kept  in  a  warm  place  in  which  the  temperature  does  not  vary 
greatly.  Many  living  rooms  and  some  kitchens  furnish  such  conditions.  From  seventy 
to  eighty  degrees  is  best.  Under  favorable  conditions  of  temperature  a  test  should  be  com- 
plete in  a  week  or  less.  Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  sprinkle  water  over  the  pad  to  main- 
tain sufficient  moisture. 

In  preparing  to  inspect  the  test  it  is  best  to  carefully  roll  first  the  pad  and  then  the 
shield  cloth  to  one  side,  instead  of  merely  pulling  them  off.  If  kernels  adhere  to  the  shield 
cloth  as  it  is  rolled  off,  brush  them  back  into  their  proper  squares.  Ordinarily  no  ear  should 
be    saved    for   seed   unless   all    six    of   its    kernels  germinate. 


83 


Summarize   the   method  of  testing  as  ir.7:cated  by  the  following: 
(a)     General  test   


(b)  Size    of   box   suitable    for   individual    ear    test. 

(c)  Depth    of    box 

(d)  Other  material  necessary 


(e)  Size  of  squares   ruled  on  cheese  cloth. 

(f)  Numbering  of  squares 


(g)     Numbering    of   ears. 


(h)     Removing  kernels  from  ear 


(i)     Time   required   for   germination. 


(j)     Selection    of  sound   ears. 


84 


EXERCISE  XXVI. 
THE  OAT  PLANT. 


Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  Twelve 
oat  plants;  twelve  wheat  plants;  twelve  panicles  of  some 
common  oat ;  twelve  side  oat  panicles ;  twelve  wild  oat 
panicles;  twelve  two-ounce  samples  of  each  of  the  follow- 
ing :    Kherson.    Swedish    Select,   and   Texas   Red. 

Part  A.     Characteristics  of  the  Stems, 
Leaves  and  Roots. 

1.  Describe  (a)  the  stem  of  the  oat  plant; 
(b)  the  leaves;  (c)  the  root  system. 

2.  Compare  (a)  the  width  of  oat  leaves  with 
the  width  of  wheat  leaves;  (b)  the  leanness  of 
the  oat  plant  with  the  leanness  of  the   wheat   plant. 

3.  To  what  family  of  plants  does  the  oat 
belong? 

4.  (a)  Would  you  infer  oat  straw  to  be  more 
or  less  palatable  than  wheat  straw?    (b)  Explain. 

Part  B.     The  Oat  Panicle. 

5.  The  flowering  region  or  inflorescence  of 
the  oat  plant  is  known  as  a  panicle.  Fig.  S3,  page 
86,  illustrates  the  inflorescence  of  the  oat  plant. 
Observe  the  main  axis  or  rachis  of  the  oat  panicle 
with  which  you  are  provided,  (a)  Do  you  find 
it  made  up  of  nodes  and  internodes  similar  to 
those  of  the  stem?  (b)  From  what  points  along 
the  main  axis  do  branches  arise?  (c)  Do  these 
branches  have  nodes  and  internodes?  (d)  Do 
the  branches  themselves  again  branch? 

6.  The  oat  spikelet  is  borne  at  the  end  of  a 
small  flexible  branch  called  a  pedicel,  (a)  What 
changes  would  be  necessary  in  order  to  cause  a 
panicle  to  appear  more  like  a  spike?  (b)  What 
parts  of  the  spike  correspond  to  the  nodes  and 
internodes  of  the  main  axis   of  the   oat  panicle? 

7.  (a)  Draw  the  rachis  of  a  spreading  oat 
panicle.  The  drawing  should  show  accurately 
the  origin,  position  and  direction  of  the  branches 
with  reference  to  the  rachis.  Excepting  one  or 
two  branches  with  spikelets  attached,  draw  only 
the  parts  of  the  branches  near  the  rachis.  (b) 
In    like   manner   make    a    drawing   of   a   side    oat 

low    do  the  branches  of  the  spreading   panicle    differ   from   the   branches   of   the 


M  FlK      52. 

Oat    culms    frown    from    a    single    seed.     This    figure 
illustrates    very    well    the    stooling    of 


panicle,     (c) 
side  panicle? 

8.  The  parts  of  an  oat  spikelet  are  quite  similar  to  the  parts  of  the  wheat  spikelet.  Dis- 
sect an  oat  spikelet  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  55,  page  86.  Make  a  neat  drawing  (natural  size)  of 
the  dissected  oat  spikelet. 

9.  (a)  Do  you  find  a  small  sterile  flower  mar  the  center  of  the  dissected  spikelet?     (b)    It 


85 


often  happens  that  in  handling  the  dry  oat 
panicle  the  small  sterile  flower  is  broken 
loose  from  its  frail  attachment  and  lost. 
When  missing,  what  evidence  do  you  see 
of  the  sterile  flower  having  been  present? 
(c)  Examine  some  threshed  oats  for  the 
presence  of  sterile  flowers.  What  becomes 
of  the  sterile  flower  in  threshing?  (d) 
What  becomes  of  the  outer  glumes?  (e) 
Observe  the  fertile  flowers  of  an  oat  spike- 
let.  Are  they  equal  or  unequal  in  size? 
(f)  What  relation  do  you  observe  to  exist 
between  their  size  and  position?  (g)  How 
do  the  outer  glumes  of  oats  differ  from  the 
palea  and  flowering  glumes? 

10.  (a)  How  do  the  outer  glumes  of 
oats  differ  from  those  of  wheat?  (b)  How 
does  the  threshed  product  differ  from  that 
of  wheat? 

11.  Find  in  oats  what  corresponds  to  the 
wheat  kernel.  Compare  it  with  wheat  in 
slenderness,  depth  of  suture,  hairiness, 
hardness  and  oiliness. 

12.  Compare  the  awn  of  oats  with  the 
awn  of  wheat  as  suggested  by  the  follow- 
ing:   (a)     Supported  by  which  glume?    (b)    Position — apical    or    dorsal? 
Straightness.     (e)     On    the   upper   or   lower    flower,  or  both? 

13.  Carefully   remove   an   awned   grain    from    a    wild    oat    spikelet.      Moisten    the    knee    of 
the  awn  with  your  tongue,    (a)    Observe  for  a  minute    or   two   and    then    describe    the    action 


Fig.  53. 
A      panicle      of      Kherson 
oats.       (Nebraska        Experi- 
ment Station.) 


Fig.  54. 
A    panicle    of    side    oats. 
(Nebraska    Experiment    Sta- 
tion.) 

(c)       Length.      (d) 


Fig.  55. 
A    Mature   Oak    Spikelet    Dissected,      (a)    A   mature   oat    spikelet;    (b-j    inclusive)    spikelet    dissected; 
(c,  d,  and  e)   fertile  flower  dissected;   (f)  sterile  flower  not  dissected;   (g,  h,  and  i)    fertile  flower  dissected; 
(b)  outer  glume;   (c)   flowering  glume;    (d)  kernel;   (e)   palea;    (f)    sterile  flower;    (g)   palea;    (h)   kernel; 
(i)   flowering  glume;    (j)    outer  glume. 

86 


which  takes  place,  (b)  Observe  that  the  base  of  the  grain  is  equipped  with  basal  hairs. 
Are  these  hairs  as  well  developed  in  common  cultivated  oats?  (c)  What  in  your  opinion  is 
the  explanation  of  a  less  development  of  awns  and  hairs  in  cultivated  oatsr1  (d)  In  what 
way  may  the  twisting  of  the  awn  and  the  presence  of  basal  hairs  be  of  help  to  the  wild  oat? 

14.  Make   a   drawing    (2x)    of   the   oat   grain  (side  view,  showing  awn). 

15.  Make    a    drawing    (2x)    of    the    oat    kernel   (suture  view). 

16.  Examine  several  very  large  grains  of  threshed  Swedish  Select  or  other  large  grained 
oats.  (a)  What  tendency  do  you  observe  for  one  grain  to  partially  enclose  another?  (b) 
If  one  grain  encloses  another  what  do  ycu  find  as  to  the  relative  filling  of  the  two  grains? 
(c)    How  does  Kherson  or  Texas  Red  compare  in  this  respect  with  the  above? 

17.  What  relation  do  you  observe  to  exist  between  the  plumpness  of  a  grain  and  the 
exposure  of  the  palea?     Do  not  mistake  the  exposure  of  an  enclosed  grain  for  the  palea. 

18.  Oats  are  best  adapted  to  cool,  rainy  countries.  Does  there  appear  to  be  any  relation 
between  this  fact  and  the  size  and  position  of  the  outer  glumes  of  the  growing  spikelet? 


87 


EXERCISE  XXVII. 
OATS— DESCRIPTIVE  TERMS. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  Twelve  panicles  of  oats,  such  as  Kherson  and  Texas  Red, 
adapted  to  adverse  conditions.  Twelve  panicles  of  oats  such  as  Garton  70  and  Improved  White  Russian,  adapted 
to  favorable  conditions;  twelve  panicles  of  wild  oats. 

INTRODUCTION.  Oat  types  differ  more  or  less  from  one  another  in  the-  size,  open- 
ness, and  shape  of  panicle.  In  order  to  properly  describe  these  common  points  of  difference 
it  is  necessary   to  use   carefully  chosen   descriptive  terms. 

DIRECTIONS.  The  following  outline  of  descriptive  terms  and  explanatory  notes  accom- 
panying them  may  be  used  as  a  guide  in  describing  the  several  types  of  oats  with  which  you 
are  supplied.  Read  carefully  the  descriptive  terms  and  at  the  same  time  make  a  casual  study 
of  the  oat  types  before  you.  This  should  do  much  toward  clarifying  the  meaning  of  the 
descriptive  terms.  After  a  casual  study  of  the  oat  types  turn  to  the  descriptive  outline  for  oats 
and   fill  in  a  careful  description  of  each  oat  type. 


OUTLINE    OF    OAT    DESCRIPTIVE    TERMS. 


I.  Panicle. 

1.  Kind. 

(a)  Spreading. 

(b)  Side. 

2.  Compactness. 

(a)  Compact. 

(b)  Medium. 

(c)  Open. 

3.  Beards   (awns)— if  present. 

(a)  Length. 

Long. 

Medium. 

Short. 

(b)  Twist. 

Twisted   strongly. 
Twisted  little,  if  at  all. 

(c)  Knee. 

Pronounced. 
Obscure. 

II.  Spikelet. 

1.  Color   of  outer  glumes, 

(a)  Whitish. 

(b)  Yellowish. 

(c)  Reddish. 

2.  Width  from  tip  of  outer  glume  to  tip  of  outer  glume. 

(a)  Narrow. 

(b)  Medium. 

(c)  Wide. 

3.  Number   of   fertile   flowers   per   spikelet 

4.  Number   of   sterile   flowers   per    spikelet. 

88 


III.     Grain 

Color  of  grain. 

(a)  Whitish. 

(b)  Yellowish. 

(c)  Reddish. 
Id)  Blackish, 
(e)     Dirty  gray. 

2.  Shape — diameter    relative    to    length. 

(a)  Slender. 

(b)  Medium. 

(c)  Plump. 

3.  Width  of  palea  exposed. 

(a)  Narrow. 

(b)  Medium. 

(c)  Wide. 

4.  Tip— extension  of  hull  beyond  the  kerne'- 

(a)  Short. 

(b)  Medium. 

(c)  Long. 

5.  Bristles    surrounding   base   of   grain. 

(a)  Long. 

(b)  Short. 

(c)  None. 

6.  *Size  of  grain  and  per  cent  of  hull. 

(a)  Weight   of  hulls   from    100   grains. 

(b)  Weight   of  kernels   from   the   same  100  grains. 

(c)  Weight   of  100  grains   (total  of  above   weights). 

(d)  Per  cent  of  hull  calculated  on  the  basis  of  the  weight  of  100  grains. 


•For  this  work  count  out  100  grains  just  as  they  come.  Pinch  out  the  kernels  present  in  the  grains.  Save 
both  hulls  and  kernels  but  keep  them  separate.  If  a  grain  proves  to  contain  no  kernel  it  is  simply  put  with  the 
hulls. 

It  will  be  well  to  have  ten  students  hull  ten  grains  each.  Bring  the  ten  groups  together.  Weigh  first  the 
hulls  from  the  100  grains,  then  the  kernels.  With  this  data  at  hand  the  students  may  be  allowed  to  make  their 
Own  calculations  as  to  the  total  weight  of   100  grains  and   the  percent   of  hull. 


DESCRIPTIVE  jtfORM  FOR  OATS. 


Variety  Names 

I. 

Panicle 

3.     Beards 

(c)  Knee   

II. 

Spikelet 

3.  No.  of  fertile  flowers.. 

4.  No.  of  sterile  flowers.. 

Grain 



III. 

i 

- 

V 

6.     Size 

(a)  Weight  of  hulls... 

(b)  Weight  of  kernels. 

(c)  Weight  of  grains.. 

(d)  Per  cent  of  hull... 

* 

90 


EXERCISE  XXVIII. 
THE  TREATMENT  OF  OATS  FOR  SMUT. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  About  twenty-four  cubic  centimeters  of  fo.  malin  (a  40%  sorti- 
tion of  formaldehyde  gas);  three  cylindrical  graduates;  100  cc.  burette  containing  about  24  cc.  of  formalin;  twelve 
500  cc.  beakers;  twelve  pieces  of  blotting  paper;  twenty-four  pie  tins;  two  quarts  of  oats  (smut  present  if  pos- 
sible) ;   one   yard   of  cheese   cloth. 

INTRODUCTION.  Oat  smuts  are  parasitic  plants,  known  as  fungi,  which  grow  in  anfi 
through  the  tissues  of  the  oat  plant.  In  mature  form  these  fungi  produce  a  mass  of  black, 
powdery,  dust-like  spores  which  replace  a  part  or  all  of  the  oat  head.  Oat  smuts  are  repro- 
duced from  these  spores  in  much  the  same  way  as  other  plants  are  reproduced  from  seeds. 
When   oats  are   threshed   many   of   these   spores   cling   to   the   grain.      If   the   grain    infected 


Fig.  56. 
A  sound  oat   panicle  in   contrast    with    oat   panicles   affected   by    smut.     (Anderson.) 

with  smut  is  planted  the  spore  germinates  and  the  resulting  parasitic  plant  is  in  position  to 
penetrate  the  young  seedling  and  grow  up  with  the  oat  plant.  When  a  fungus  thus  infects 
a  higher  plant  we  usually  speak  of  it  as  a  disease.  In  order  to  control  this  disease  of  the 
oat  plant  it  is  necessary  to  treat  the  seed  grain  in  such  a  way  as  will  destroy  the  smut  spores 
clinging  to  it,  yet  not  seriously  injure  the  grain. 


DIRECTIONS.  Oat  smut  is  very  successfully  treated  with  a  solution  of  formalin — a  40% 
solution  of  formaldehyde  gas.  The  best  solution  strength  for  treating  oats  for  smut  is  made 
by  adding  one  pound  of  formalin  to  SO  gallons  of  water.  This  is  about  the  same  as  1  pjnt 
of  formalin  to  400  pints  of  water,  or  1  cubic  centimeter  of  formalin  to  400  cubic  centimeters 
of  water.     For  the  laboratory  experiment  about  400  cc.  of  the  solution  will  be  sufficient. 

9'. 


Place  about  400  cc.  of  water  in  a  500  cc.  beaker.  To  this  add  1  cc.  of  formalin  from  the 
burette.  A  small  handful  of  oats  will  be  sufficient  for  the  individual  experiment.  Wrap  the 
oats  in  a  piece  of  cheese  cloth  and  immerse  them  for  30  minutes  in  a  solution  of  formalin. 
After  treatment  the  seed  should  be  spread  out  in  a  thin  layer  to  dry. 

In  order  to  determine  whether  or  not  the  treatment  has  an  effect  upon  the  viability  of 
the  seed  it  will  be  interesting  to  make  a  germination  test  of  both  the  treated  and  the  un- 
treated  seed.     To  make  this  test  use  a  germinator  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  4,  page  22. 

1.  Report   of   individual   results. 

(a)  Treated   seed,   germination %. 

(b)  Untreated  seed,  germination. .......  %. 

2.  Report   of   class   results. 

(a)  Treated  seed.  Average  per  cent  of  germination  as  determined  from  the  average  of 
individual  reports %. 

(b)  Untreated  seed.  Average  per  cent  of  germination  as  determined  from  the  average 
of  individual  reports %. 

3.  (a)  Does  the  seed  swell  when  treated  with  formalin  solution?  (b)  Would  swelling  of 
the   seed   influence   the   rate   of  seeding?     Explain. 

4.  Does    the   formalin    treatment    injure   the  viability  of  the  seed? 

5.  Suppose  that  on  account  of  some  error  you  had  reason  to  suspect  that  the  viability 
of  the  seed  had  been  lowered  in  treating  it  for  smut.  How  might  you  avoid  serious  conse- 
quences of  the  mistake? 

6.  How  would  you  proceed  to  treat  10  bushels  of  seed  oats? 

7.  The  loose  and  covered  smut  of  oats,  the  covered  smut  of  wheat,  the  covered  smut 
of  barley,  and  the  kernel  smut  of  sorghum  may  all  be  treated  effectively  in  a  similar  manner. 
Why  can  corn  smut  not  be  successfully  treated  in  this  manner?  (Warren's  Elements  of 
Agriculture,  page  254.) 


92 


EXERCISE  XXIX. 
THE  BARLEY  PLANT. 

Supplies  (or  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  From  six  to  twelve  specimens  of  barley  plants  showing  roots, 
stems,  and  leaves;  one  or  two  wheat  plants;  one  or  two  oat  plants;  twenty-four  heads  of  six-row,  bearded,  hull- 
less  barley;  twenty-four  heads  of  six-row,  bearded  hulled  barley;  twenty-four  heads  of  six-row,  hooded,  naked  bar- 
ley; twenty-four  heads  of  two-row,  bearded,  hulled  barley;  twenty-four  heads  of  bearded  wheat;  twelve  two-ounce 
screw   cap  bottles  of  each  of  the  following :   covered  six-row   barley,   covered   two-row   barley,   naked   barley,   wheat. 

Part  A.    Characteristics  of  Stem,  Leaves  and  Roots. 

1.  (a)  Describe  the  stem  of  the  barley  plant,  (b)  Compare  the  stiffness  of  the  culm 
of  barley  with  that  of  wheat,  (c)  How  does  the  stiffness  of  the  barley  culm  compare  with 
cats? 

2.  (a)  Describe  the  leaves  of  barley,  (b)  Compare  the  width  of  barley  leaves  with  the 
width   of  oat  leaves,     (c)     Compare   their  width  with  wheat  leaves. 

3.  How  does  the  height  of  barley  culms  seem  to  compare  with  the  height  of  oats? 

4.  How  do  you  think  the  barley  plant  would  compare  with  wheat  as  a  nurse  crop  for 
clover  or  timothy?     With   oats?     Explain. 

5.  Describe    the    root   system    of    the    barley  plant. 

Part  B.     The  Inflorescence. 

6.  What   term   will    describe   the    inflorescence  of  barley? 

Barleys  may  be  divided  into  two  classes  as  to  the  number  of  rows  of  grain.  Six-row 
barleys  will  be  found  to  have  six  rows  of  grains.  It  sometimes  happens,  however,  that  two 
pairs  of  rows  overlap  one  another,  giving  rise  to  so-called  four-row  barleys.  This  over- 
lapping of  rows  is  especially  marked  near  the  top  of  the  spike.  Two-row  barleys  are 
easily  distinguished  from  six-row  barleys  by  the  flatness  of  the  heads  and  the  number  of  rows 
of  grains. 

7.  Select  the  six-rowed,  bearded,  hull-less  barley  spike  from  your  supplies.  Remove  a 
sufficient  number  of  grains  and  awl-like  glumes  to  expose  three  or  four  of  the  lower  joints 
of  the  rachis.  (a)  How  many  grains  are  attached  to  each  rachis  joint?  (b)  Name  the 
glumes  which  together  enclose  the  barley  kernel,  (c)  How  many  awl-like  glumes  do  you 
find  attached  to  each  rachis  joint?  (d)  How  many  awl-like  glumes  per  grain?  (e)  What 
name  should  be  applied  to  these  awl-like  glumes  which  stand  on  either  side  of  the  grain? 
(f)  What  is  a  spikelet?  (g)  How  many  spikelets  per  rachis  joint  in  barleys?  (h)  What 
evidence  can  you  give  to  show  that  the  foregoing  answer  is  correct?  (i)  How  many  fertile 
flowers  per  rachis  joint  in  six-row  barleys?  (j)  How  many  fertile  spikelets  per  rachis  joint 
in  six-row  barley?  (k)  How  many  fertile  flowers  per  rachis  joint  in  two-row  barleys?  (1) 
How  many  sterile  spikelets  per  rachis  joint  in  two-row  barleys? 

8.  Lay  out  in  good  order  on  a  clean  sheet  of  paper  all  the  parts  which  are  found  on 
a  single  rachis  joint  of  six-row,  bearded,  hull-less  barley.  Write  below  each  part  its  proper 
name.  Then  remove  the  glumes  and  kernel  a  little  to  one  side  and  make  a  careful  drawing 
of  each  part.     Reference  to  Fig.  57,  page  94,  will  aid  you  in  this  work. 

9.  How  does  the  beard  of  the  barleys  compare  with  the  beard  of  wheats  in  the  follow- 
ing particulars:  (a)  Place  at  which  it  originates,  (b)  Direction  relative  to  spike  and  to  each 
other,  (c)  Length,  (d)  Shape  of  cross  section,  (e)  Barbing — as  shown  by  rubbing  the 
fingers  from  the  point  toward  the  base. 

93 


10.  (a)  Which  is  the  most  pleasant  to  harvest  and  thresh,  bearded  wheat  or  bearded 
barley?  Explain,  (b)  Would  the  nature  of  barley  beards  tend  to  make  barley  popular  or 
unpopular  among  farmers?  (c)  Which  would  you  consider  more  safe  to  feed  to  stock — 
straw  of  bearded  barley  or  straw  of  bearded  wheat? 

11.  (a)  As  shown  by  its  position,  the  barley  "hood"  is  a  modification  of  what?  (b)  If 
hooded  barleys  were  as  heavy  yielders  as  bearded  barleys  (which  except  at  great  altitudes  is 
not  true)  and  price  per  bushel  were  the  same,  which  would  be  the  most  popular  among 
growers?     Why? 


B    C    DEF 


B     C    D  EF 


V\»>7 

F     EDC    B 


Fig.  57. 
(a)   Group  of  barley  spikelets  supported  by  a  rachis  joint  of  six-row  barley. 
(b,  c,  d,  e  and  f)    fertile   spikelet — 'three),   supported   by   a    single   rachis  joint; 
(b)   outer  glume:    (c)    flowering  glume:    (d)   kernel:    (e)   palea :    (f)   outer  glume. 
(Anderson.) 

12.  (a)  After  threshing,  the  kernels  of  the  common  form  of  both  oats  and  barley  re- 
main firmly  held  between  the  flowering  glume  and  palea.  Explain  how  the  barley  kernel 
is  held  enclosed,  (b)  Likewise  explain  how  the  oat  kernel  is  held.,  (c)  How  do  naked  barleys 
differ  from  common  barleys? 

13.  Compare  the  kernel  of  naked  barley  with  the  wheat  kernel  in  the  following  particu- 
lars: (a)  Length,  (b)  Width,  (c)  Thickness,  (d)  Shape  of  ends,  (e)  Brush,  (f)  Depth 
and  width  of  suture. 

14.  How  would  you  distinguish  a  threshed  sample  of  common  six-row  barley  from  one 
of  common  two-row  barley? 


94 


15.  Make  a  drawing  (2x)  of  a  joint  of  the  barley  rachis  with  spikelets  attached,  as  se.jn 
from  the  outside,  (a)  First,  of  six-row,  bearded,  hulled,  (b)  Second,  of  six-row,  hooded, 
naked,      (c)     Third,    of   two-row,    bearded,    hulled. 

16.  Make  a  drawing  (2x)  of  the  central  spikelet  of  a  two-row,  covered,  bearded  bar- 
ley.     Remove    the    sterile    spikelets    before    drawing. 


Fig.  58. 
(a)  A  group  of  barley  spike- 
lets supported  by  a  rachis  joint 
of  two-row  barley:  (b  and  d) 
sterile  spikelets :  (c)  fertile 
spikelet.       (Anderson.) 

17.  (a)  Make  a  drawing  (2x)  of  the  suture  side  of  a  six-row,  naked  barley  kernel,  (b) 
Make  a  drawing  (2x)  of  the  germ  side,  (c)  Make  a  drawing  (2x)  of  the  cross  section.  Name 
the  drawings  and  indicate  brush,  suture,  germ,  etc. 


95 


EXERCISE  XXX. 
BARLEY— DESCRIPTIVE  TERMS. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  Each  student  should  be  supplied  with  a  ruler  and  as  tnany 
types  of  barley  heads  as  are  available. 

DIRECTIONS.  Read  carefully  the  descriptive  terms  applied  to  barley  and  at  the  same 
time  make  a  casual  study  of  the  barley  heads  with  which  you  are  supplied.  After  studying  the 
terms  and  material  which  you  have  before  you.  turn  to  the  descriptive  form,  page  98,  and  fill 
in  a  careful  description  of  each  barley  type. 

OUTLINE   OF   BARLEY   DESCRIPTIVE  TERMS. 

I.  Spike. 

1.  Color. 

(a)  Whitish. 

(b)  Yellowish. 

(c)  Blackish. 

2.  Rows. 

(a)  Six-row. 

(b)  Two-row. 

3.  Slenderness. 

(a)  Slender. 

(b)  Medium. 

(c)  Stocky. 

4.  Cross  section  as  seen  from  the  end. 

(a)  Oval. 

(b)  Rectangular. 

(c)  Round. 

5.  Spacing   of   spikelets   on   the   rachis. 

(a)  Close. 

(b)  Medium. 

(c)  Open. 

6.  Beards. 

(a)  Presence. 

Bearded. 
Partly  bearded. 
Beardless. 
Hooded. 

(b)  Length    (if    present). 

Short — less   than   3   inches. 
Medium — 3-5   inches. 
Long — more   than   5   inches. 
7.    Length  of  spike  stated  in  inches. 

II.  Spikelet. 

1.     Number  of  flowers  per  rachis  joint. 

(a)  Fertile. 

(b)  Sterile. 

III.  Kernel. 

1.    Adherence  of  glumes. 

(a)  Covered. 

(b)  Hull-less. 

96 


2.  Color  of  kernel. 

(a)  Whitish. 

(b)  Yellowish. 

(c)  Olive  drab. 

(d)  Purplish. 

(e)  Blackish. 

3.  Shape. 

(a)  Short  and  plump. 

(b)  Medium. 

(c)  Long  and  flattish. 

4.  Hardness — as    determined    by    biting   jr  cutting. 

(a)  Soft. 

(b)  Medium. 

(c)  Hard. 

5.  Texture. 

(a)  Starchy. 

(b)  Dull. 

(c)  Vitreous. 

6.  Weight  of  100  grains  or  kernels. 


97 


DESCRIPTIVE    FORM    FOR    BARLEY. 


I.     Spike. 


1.  Color    

2.  Rows    

3.     Slenderness 

4.  Cross    section    

5.  Spacing   of    spikelets 

6.  Beards. 

(a)     Presence    

(h)     Length    

7.  Length    


II.     Spikelet. 

1.     Number  of  flowers 
per  rachis  joint 


(a)  Fertile 

(b)  Sterile 


III.     Kernel. 

1.  Adherence   of   glumes 

2.  Color    

3.  Shape    

4.  Hardness    

5.  Texture    


6.    Weight  of  100  grains 
or  kernels  


Variety  Names 


EXERCISE  XXXI. 
CHARACTERISTICS   OF   GRASS  "SEEDS." 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  Twelve  small  vials  of  each  of  the  following:  orchard  grass, 
brome  grass,  meadow  fescue,  red  top  in  chaff,  Kentucky  blue  grass,  perennial  rye,  timothy,  cheat  or  chess. 
Twelve   tripod   magnifiers. 

INTRODUCTION.  The  ability  to  identify  on  sight  the  "seeds"  of  our  valuable,  small- 
seeded  forage  crops  and  to  recognize  with  certainty  the  more  common  adulterants  and  im- 
purities in  such  seeds  are  matters  of  much  importance  to  farmers.  Important  as  such  knowl- 
edge is,  however,  it  is  an.  unfortunate  fact  that  few  farmers  have  it.  Luckily,  all  small-seeded 
forage  crops,  with  a  few  but  important  exceptions,  like  rape,  are  either  grasses  or  legumes. 
This  fact  simplifies  matters  very  much.  Reasonable  ability  in  identifying  the  more  common 
forage  crop  "seeds"  is  therefore  a  matter  of  a  little   close   study  and  some  practice. 

The  identification  of  grass  "seeds"  is  based  upon  such  points  as  awn,  rachilla,  pubescence, 
shape,  size,  and  color.  If  the  student  has  carefully  studied  threshed  oats,  barley  and  wheat, 
there  is  practically  no  structural  part  about  a  grass  "seed"  with  which  he  is  not  already 
familiar. 

1.  Awn.     (a)    Which  grass  "seed"  is  distinctly  awned? 

(b)  Which  one  has  a  very  short  awn   (awn  pointed)? 

(c)  Which  one,  while  normally  awnless,  is  in  rare  cases  awn  pointed? 

(d)  Which  five  are  awnless? 

2.  Rachilla  Joint,     (a)    On  which  six  is  the  attached  joint  of  the  rachilla  easily  seen? 

(b)  On  which  two  is  there  no  rachilla»joint? 

(c)  Which  three  have  a  rachilla  that  suddenly  enlarges  at  the  end  into  a  sort  of  plate 
or  flattened  knob? 

(d)  Which  three  gradually  enlarge  toward  the  end  of  the  rachilla — ending  without  pro- 
nounced plate  or  knob? 

(e)  Which  of  the  foregoing  three  are  decidedly  slanting  at  the  free  end? 

(f)  Which  of  the  foregoing  three  is  flattened  in  cross  section  and  slants  very  little  at 
the  free  end? 

(g)  Which    has    a    strongly    curved    rachilla? 
(h)     Which   has   a   strongly   pubescent   rachilla? 

3.  Bristles,  (a)  Which  one  has  a  row  of  spines  along  its  keel  (the  sharp  ridge  on  the 
side  opposite  the  palea)  toward  the  tip? 

(b)  Which  one  has  a  row  of  short  spines  all  along  from  base  to  the  tip  of  what  appears 
to  be  the  keel? 

4.  Shape,     (a)    Which  one  is  rather  flat? 

(b)  Which   one   is   rather   canoe-shaped    (strongly   in-rolled)? 

(c)  Which  one  is  very  short  and  plump? 

5.  The  Tip.     (a)  The  tip  of  which  one  usually  appears  particularly  ragged  and  frayed? 
(b)     In  which  one  does  the  tip  have  about  a  fourth  of  a  twist  to  right  or  left? 

6.  Size,     (a)    Which  two,  regardless  of  shape,  are  rather  large? 
(b)     Which  three  are  rather  small? 

7.  Color,     (a)    Which  three  are  rather  brown? 

(b)     Some  of  the  "seeds"  of  what  grass  are  silvery  white  in  color? 

99  .  .  : 


(c)  Why  have   not  all   "seeds"  of  the   foregoing  grass  a  silvery   color? 

(d)  Which  grass  has  "seeds"  that  are  rather  light  colored? 

8.  Miscellaneous,    (a)    In  which  are  the  edges  of  the  palea  strongly  serrated? 

(b)  In   which   has   the   palea    three   prominent   nerves? 

(c)  Which   grass   has   normallly   a   considerable   percent  of  naked  "seed"? 

(d)  Of  such  "seeds"  of  the  foregoing  grass  as  are  not  naked,  what  is  the  texture  or 
nature  of  the  covering  immediately  about  the  "seed"? 

(e)  How  does  the  texture  of  this  covering  differ  from  that  of  most  of  the  other  grass 
"seeds"? 

(f)  What  does  this  covering  appear  to  be — structurally  speaking? 

(g)  From  the  "seed"  of  what  grass  may  a  sort  of  outer  hull  be  easily  removed — thus 
exposing  a  thin  inner  covering  which   can  also  be  removed? 

(h)     Can  you  explain  what  these  outer  and  inner  coverings  are — structurally  speaking? 

(i)  It  is  the  "seeds"  of  the  two  foregoing  grasses  which  are  lacking  in  the  rachilla  joint 
common  to  all  the  other  grass  "seeds"  you  are  studying.  What  would  be  your  explanation 
of  this  missing  part? 

(j)  Two  (occasionally  more)  "seeds"  of  what  grass  are  frequently  found  still  clinging 
together? 

(k)  If  a  considerable  percent  of  the  "seeds"  of  the  foregoing  grass  are  attached  to  each 
other,  and  particularly  if  the  "seeds"  look  unusually  light  in  color,  what  do  you  suppose  this 
would  signify  as  to  the  quality  of  the  "seed"? 

9.  Drawings.  Make  two  careful  drawings  of  what  seems  to  be  a  typical  specimen  of  the 
"seed"  of  each  species  of  grass — drawing  first  the  palea  view  and  then  a  side  view  of  each  "seed." 
Make  each  dimension  of  your  drawings  five  times  that  of  the  specimen.  This  will  make  the 
area  of  your  drawings  twenty-five  times  the  surface  area  of  the  side  of  the  "seed"  which  you 
are  drawing. 


100 


•Fig.  59. 

Timothy :     (a)   grains  in  the  hull,  or 
chaff ;     (b)    grains    removed    from    the 
chaff;   (c)   the  same,  natural  size. 


Kentucky  Blue 
Grass:  (a)  back 
view;  (b)  front  view; 

(1)       palea;       (2) 

rachilla  joint. 


•Fig.   61. 

Red    Top:       (a)    whole    spikelets ;     (b) 
rated  scales  of  same. 


sepa- 


» 


•Adapted  from   Farmers'   Bulletins   382  and   428. 


101 


**>■*  *      * 


J*::..!.* 


Orchard  Grass — adulterated :  (a)  orchard  grass ;  (b)  meadow  fescue ;  (c) 
English  rye-grass.  The  orchard  grass  seeds  are  distinguished  from 
the  others  by  the  slender,  curved  form.  The  meadow  fescue  and 
rye-grass  are  distinguished  by  the  difference  in  the  section  of  the 
*eed-cluster  axis  (rachilla  segment)   which  each  bears. 


•Fig.   63. 


Brome  Grass — adulterated:  (b)  meadow  fescue;  (c)  English  rye-grass; 
(d)  chess  or  cheat.  The  brome-grass  seeds  are  distinguished  by  their 
greater  length  and  flattened  form.  The  seeds  of  chess  (d)  are  some- 
what cylindrical,  due  to  being  folded  lengthwise.  Tln:y  are  thus 
thicker  than  the  awnless  brome-grass  seed  and  sometimes  are  awned. 


•Adapted   from  Farmers'   Bulletin  382. 


102 


EXERCISE  XXXII. 
IDENTIFICATION    OF   GRASS   "SEEDS." 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve%  Twelve  small  vials  of  each  of  the  following:  orchard  grass, 
brome  grass,  meadow  fescue,  red  top  in  chaff,  Kentucky  blue  grass,  perennial  rye,  timothy,  cheat  or  chess.  A 
few   mixtures   of   grass    seeds   prepared    by    the   instructor.      "Prepared    Mixtures    of    Grass    Seeds."      Twelve    tripod 

magnifiers. 

Part  A.     Detection  of  Adulterants  and  Su  bstitutes. 

DIRECTIONS.  In  answering  the  following  questions  hit  upon  one  to  five  (preferably 
two  or  three)  important  and  strongly  distinguishing  points  of  difference.  In  recording  these 
points  of  difference  use  the  accompanying  "Comparison  Blank."  Keep  your  observations  on 
points  in  which  comparison  is  made  on  corresponding  lines  in  the  two  parallel  columns. 
Note,  for  example,  how  comparison  is  made  between  the  "seeds"  of  brome  grass  and  perennial 
rye  grass  as  called  for  in  the  first  question. 

1.  (a)    How  could  you  detect  the  "seed"  of  perennial  rye  in  that  of  brome  grass? 

(b)  How  could  you  detect  perennial  rye  in  meadow  fescue? 

(c)  How  could  you  detect  perennial  rye  in  brome? 

(d)  How  could  you  detect  cheat  in  brome? 

(e)  How  could  you  detect  cheat  in  meadow  fescue? 

(f)  How  could  you  detect  cheat  in  orchard  grass? 

(g)  How   could   you   detect   meadow    fescue  in  brome? 

(h)     How   could   you   detect   meadow   fescue  in  orchard  grass? 
(i)     How  could  you  detect  red  top  in  blue  grass? 
(j)     How   could  you   detect   timothy  in   red  top? 

COMPARISON  BLANK  FOR  GRASS  "SEEDS." 


Questions 

Points  of 
Comparison 

"Seeds"  Compared 

(a) 

Brome 

Perennial  Rye 

Shape 

Rather  flat 

Not  flat 

Rachilla 

Pubescent  and  not  espe- 

Flat and  not  pubescent 

cially  flat 

Nerves 

Three  prominent  nerves 

Not  noticeable 

on  palea 

(b) 

Meadow  Fescue 

Perennial  Rye 

^ 

' 

103 


COMPARISON  BLANK   FOR  GRASS  "SEEDS.' 


Questions 

Points  of 
Comparison 

"Seeds"   Compared 

• 

f 



- 

• 

• 

104 


COMPARISON    BLANK    FOR    GRASS    "SEEDS. 


» 


Questions 

Points  of 
Comparison 

"Seeds"  Compared 

« 

- 

1 

'   ' 

105 


Part  B.    Mixtures  and  Adulteration  of  Grass  "Seeds." 

2.  Certain  simple  mixtures  of  grass  "seeds,"  mixed  and  supplied  by  the  teacher,  will  be 
given  you.  After  identifying  and  recording  what  you  find  in  the  mixtures,  check  the  list  of 
"seeds"  you  actually  find  present  with  the  list  oi  "seeds"  which  your  instructor  says  you 
should  find.  If  the  two  lists  do  not  agree  note  where  the  disagreement  is,  and  if  possible 
find  the  cause  of  error.  If  you  are  mistaken  in  the  identity  of  any  kind  of  "seed,"  study 
that  "seed"  very  carefully  so  that  the  same  mistake  will  not  be  made  again. 

Remember  that  one  or  two  "seeds"  of  any  species  in  a  mixture  may  easily  be  there  by 
accident.  In  fact,  samples  of  "seed"  are  seldom  absolutely  free  from  a  very  few  "seeds"  not 
supposed  to  be  present.  If  any  kind  of  "seed"  belongs  in  the  mixture  it  should  be  there  in 
considerable  quantity.  If  you  find  a  very  few  "seeds"  which  you  suspect  are  not  supposed  to 
be  in  the  mixture,  record  the  presence  of  such  "seeds"  as  "a  trace."  It  is  also  best  to  put 
these  doubtful  "seeds"  aside  so  they  may  be  examined  again,  if  necessary. 

It  is  suggested  that  before  attempting  to  name  the  various  "seeds"  in  a  mixture,  you  sep- 
arate into  various  lots  all  the  different  kinds  of  "seed"  which  you  find  present.  It  is  often 
much  more  difficult  to  identify  a  doubtful  "seed"  in  a  general  mixture  than  it  is  when  placed 
near  a  number  of  already  identified  "seeds"  supposed  to  be  of  its  own  kind. 

3.  If  the  foregoing  exercises  in  simple  mixtures  have  been  carefully  worked  out,  you  are 
now  ready  to  identify  the  "seeds"  in  the  various  "Prepared  Mixtures  of  Grass  'Seeds.'  "  Not 
only  are  you  expected  to  identify  the  "seeds"  in  each  mixture  but  you  are  to  give  the  approx- 
imate proportions  (expressed  in  percent)  of  each  kind  of  "seed"  present.  It  will  be  sufficiently 
accurate  for  our  purposes  to  estimate  the  percent  of  the  different  "seeds"  present.  If  you 
are  given  a  representative  sample  of  the  prepared  mixture  and  in  turn  work  with  a  repre- 
sentative part  of  this  sample,  the  separation  of  a  small  lot  of  "seed"  will  indicate  approxi- 
mately what  was  in  the  whole  original  mixture. 

Record  in  definite  form  just  what  "seeds"  you  find  in  each  prepared  mixture — also  the 
percent  of  each  kind  of  "seed." 


106 


EXERCISE  XXXIII. 
CHARACTERISTICS  OF  LEGUME  SEEDS. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  Twelve  small  vials  of  each  of  the  following:  crimson  clover, 
common  alfalfa,  burr  clover,  yellow  trefoil,  white  sweet  clover,  white  clover,  alsike  clover,  rea  clover,  and  smal" 
yellow  annual  sweet  clover.     "Prepared  Mixtures  of  Legume  Seeds."     Twelve  tripod  magnifiers. 

INTRODUCTION.  As  has  been  said  in  the  introduction  to  the  study  of  grass  "seeds,s 
legumes  are  one  of  the  two  great  botanical  families  which  include  most  of  our  common  and 
valuable  forage  crops.  Legumes,  being  a  very  different  family  from  the  grasses,  have  seeds 
which  are  very  different  in  structural  points.  A  study  of  the  cereals  made  a  good  preparation 
for  work  with  the  so-called  "seeds"  of  forage  grasses,  but  we  have  had  no  such  preparatory 
study  to  help  us  with  legumes.  We  must,  therefore,  find  and  study  the  peculiarities  of  the 
legume  seed. 

From  Exercise  XIII,  Part  A,  you  have  at  least  some  idea  as  to  the  gross  structure  of 
the  legume  seed.  A  careful  examination  of  the  small  leguminous  seeds  before  you  will  prove 
that  these  seeds  are  essentially  like  the  seed  of  a  bean  and  that  they  have  a  number  of 
characteristic  structural  points  in  common.  A  more  careful  study  will  show  that  these  com- 
mon structural  points  vary  considerably  as  between  one  species  of  legume  and  another.  It  is 
through  study  of  these  points  ("scar,"  "nose,"  "notch,"  and  "groove,"  together  with  such 
things  as  shape,  size,  skin  texture,  color  and  odor)  that  we  become  able  to  identify  with  con- 
siderable certainty  the  seeds  of  the  more  common  small-seeded  legumes. 

1.  Scar.  Under  a  small  lens  observe  that  each  seed  has  a  "scar."  The  scar  is  sit- 
uated on  one  edge  of  the  seed — usually  in  a  "notch"  near  the  middle.  Because  of  its  large  size 
and  the  surrounding  ring  of  reddish  color,  the  "scar"  is  very  prominent  in  crimson  clover. 
The  botanist  calls  the  "scar"  the  "hylum.'     What  is  your  explanation  of  the  "scar"? 

2.  Nose.  It  will  be  observed  that  one  end  of  the  seed  of  the  average  small-seeded  legume 
is  wider  than  the  other.  At  a  point  very  near  one  end  of  the  "scar,"  where  this  broader  end 
more  or  less  suddenly  narrows  on  one  side  to  meet  the  narrower  end,  there  is,  in  effect  at 
least,  a  sort  of  projection.  This  projection  in  some  seeds,  red  clover  for  instance,  suggests 
the  thumb  of  a  catching  mitt,  or  boxing  glove. 

Botanists  call  this  projection  "the  free  end  of  the  radical."  Practical  seed  analysts  are 
more  apt  to  call  it  the  "nose"  or  the  "beak."  In  some  legumes,  sweet  clover,  for  instance, 
the  "nose"  is  rather  large,  but  not  very  sharp  or  abrupt.  In  others,  red  clover,  for  instance, 
the  "nose"  is  quite  variable  and  may  be  rounded,  abrupt,  or  even  hooked.  Which  seed  has  a 
small  but  abruptly  projecting  "nose"  of  the  "pug"  type? 

3.  Notch.  The  "notch"  in  which  the  scar  is  situated  is  a  depression  in  the  edge  of  the 
seed.  The  notch  is,  in  part  at  least,  formed  on  one  side  by  the  more  or  less  abrupt  ending  of 
the  "point  of  the  radicle." 

(a)  In  which  two  is  the  rather  deep,  but  not  very  abrupt  notch  near  the  middle  of  one 
end? 

(b)  In  which  two  is  the  notch  rather  prominent  and  near  to  the  corner  of  one  end? 

(c)  In  which  one  is  the  notch  rather  deep,  abrupt,  and  very  near  the  middle  of  one  side? 

(d)  In  which  one  is  such  notch  as  exists  formed  mainly  by  the  abrupt  projection  of  the 
"nose"  or  "free  end  of  the  radicle"? 

(e)  In  which  three  is  such  notch  as  there  is  nearly  in  the  middle  of  one  side? 

4.  Groove.  Note  that  there  is  normally  a  furrow-like  depresssion  or  "groove"  which  be- 
gins in  the  notch  and  runs  along  side,  and  nearly  parallel  to  one  edge.  This  furrow  or  groove 
extends  toward  one  end  of  the  seed,  but  usually  disappears  before  reaching  it.  The  groove 
divides  the  seed  into  two  parts  of  different  size  and  shape.  There  is  a  marginal  roll  or  ridge 
lying  between  the  groove  and  the  edge  alongside  of  which  the  groove  runs.    It  is  the  outer- 

107 


most  or  "free  end"  of  this  ridge,  which  is  called  the  "nose,"  "beak,"  or  "free  end  of  the  radi- 
cle." The  part  from  which  the  groove  separates  the  ridge  is  broader  in  proportion  to  its 
length  than  is  the  ridge.  White  sweet  clover  very  clearly  shows  both  the  "notch"  and  the 
"groove"  as  well  as  the  "scar"  and  "nose." 

(a)  In  which  four  is  the  groove  rather  well  denned,  largely  through  its  considerable 
breadth,  depth  and  length? 

(b)  In  which  three  is  the  groove  narrow,  but,  largely  through  color  and  skin  texture, 
well  defined? 

(c)  In  which  one  is  it  often  rather  broad,  but  not  well  denned? 

(d)  In  which  one  is  it  least  prominent? 

5.  Shape.  Shape  is  one  of  the  most  satisfactory  means  that  we  have  of  identifying  legume 
seeds. 

(a)  Of  the  seeds  which  you  have  for  examination,  which  two  are  rather  uniformly  heart- 
shaped? 

(b)  Which  one  is  in  general  "somewhat  triangular"  (though  the  corners  of  the  triangle 
are  rounded  instead  of  sharp),  or  as  others  describe  it,  "shaped  like  a  boxing  glove  or  catch- 
ing mitt"? 

(c)  Which  two  are  rather  uniformly  notched  near  one  corner?  One  .of  these  two  kinds 
of  seed  is  usually  much  more  notched  at  the  corner  than  is  the  other  one. 

(d)  Which  one  is  very  uniformly  oval  or  egg-shaped,  and  looks  something  like  a  plump 
navy  bean? 

(e)  Which  one  is  uniformly  shaped  something  like  the  preceding  one,  excepting  for  a 
small  but  prominent  "nose,"  not  far  from  the  smaller  end  of  the  seed? 

(f)  Which  one   is  uniformly  kidney  shaped,  or  shaped  much  like  a  lima  bean? 

(g)  Which  one  is  decidedly  lacking  in  uniformity  and  has  at  least  three  diherent  shapes? 

6.  Size,     (a)     Which  two  or  normally  rather  large? 
(b)     Which  five  are  normally  intermediate? 

(c)     Which  two  are  normally  very  small? 

7.  Skin  Texture,      (a)     Which   one   is  very  smooth  and  shining? 

(b)  Which   six   are   rather  intermediate   in  smoothness  and  gloss? 

(c)  Which  one  is  rather  dull  and  mottled? 

(d)  Which  one  has  a  finely  uneven  and  very  dull  skin? 

8.  Color.  At  best,  color  alone  is  an  unsatisfactory  point  of  distinction.  It  is,  however, 
a  distinction  which  impresses  the  eye  strongly,  and  if  coupled  with  more  fundamental  differ- 
ences, shape  for  instance,  is  often  of  material  value  in  seed  identification. 

(a)  Which  one  is  rather  uniform,  and  ranges  from  a  light,  yellowish  brown  to  a  golden 
or  reddish  brown? 

(b)  Which  one  is  but  slightly  uniform,  and  ranges  from  a  canary  yellow  to  a  yellowish 
brown? 

(c)  '  Which  one  is  but  slightly  uniform,  and  ranges  from  greenish  yellow  to  greenish 
purple  or  greenish  black? 

(d)  Which    one    has    little    uniformity,    and   ranges  from  lemon  yellow  to  a  deep  violet? 

(e)  Which  one  is  but  slightly  uniform,  and  is  a  dark  olive  green  with  a  few  green  and 
a  few  brownish  seeds?     Some  of  these  seeds  are  partly  covered  with  a  rough  whitish  hull. 

(f)  Which  one  is  fairly  uniform  and  ranges  from  a  neutral  yellow  to  a  brownish  yellow? 

9.  Odor.    Which  two  have  a  peculiar  sweetish  odor? 

10.  Drawings.  Make  a  careful  drawing  of  what  seems  to  be  a  typical  specimen  of  the 
seed  of  each  legume,  broad  view.  Make  the  dimensions  of  your  drawings  ten  times  that  of 
your  specimen.  The  seed  of  one  very  important  legume  has  more  than  one  typical  shape. 
In  this  case  make  as  many  drawings  as  are  necessary  to  illustrate  these  different  types.  Draw 
these  seeds  in  the  same  order  as  given  in  the  list  of  supplies. 

108 


o  a 


*Fig.  64. 

Red  Clover:  (1)  side  view  and  (2)  edge  view  of  seeds; 
(3)  the  triangular  form  indicated;  (4)  a  seed  cut  length- 
wise; (5)  a  seed  cut  crosswise,  showing  the  embryo;  (a) 
a  seed  scar;  (b)  a  stemlet  (radicle)  of  the  embryo;  (c) 
seed  leaves  (cotyledons)  of  the  embryo;  (6)  a  pod  of 
red  clover;    (7)   natural   size  of  seeds. 


Alfalfa:  (a)  individual  seeds  showing  variation  in 
form;  (b)  edge  view  of  a  seed,  showing  the  scar; 
(c)   natural  size  of  seeds. 


*Fig  66. 

Alfalfa — plump  and  shriveled  :  (a)  well- 
filled,  plump  seeds;  (b)  cross  section  of 
a  well-filled  seed,  showing  the  thick 
embryo,  (e)  ;  (c)  shriveled  seeds — thin 
and  having  a  wrinkled  seed  coat;  (d) 
cross  section  of  a  shriveled  seed,  show- 
ing the  thin,  worthless  embryo,   (e). 


• 


0      0 
o 

•Fig.  67. 
White    Clover. 


•Adapted  from   Farmers'   Bulletin   382. 


109 


% 


m 


#*■ 


*Fig  68. 

Alsike  Clover:  (a)  seeds  showing  varia- 
tion in  form  and  surface  appearance; 
(b)   natural   size  of  seeds. 


% 


o  o 


Fig  69. 
Crimson  Clover. 


•Fig.   70. 

White  Sweet  Clover  (Melilotus  alba)  :  (a) 
seeds  showing  variation  in  form  and  size ; 
(b)  natural  size  of  seeds;  (c)  a  pod  of 
sweet  clover. 


*Fig.   72. 
Burr    Clover    (Medicago    denticulata). 


•Fig.  71. 

Small,     Yellow,     An- 
nual   Sweet    Clover 
(Melilotus    indica). 


•Fig.   73. 

Yellow  Trefoil :  (a)  seeds  showing  variation  in  form  and 
size;  (b)  natural  size  of  seeds;  (c)  form  indicated;  (d) 
a  pod  of  trefoil. 


•Adapted  from  Farmers'  Bulletins  382  and  485. 


no 


•Fig.   74. 

Red  Clover— adulterated :  (a)  red  clover;  (b)  yel- 
low trefoil.  The  clover  seeds  are  more  or  less 
triangular;  those  of  trefoil  oval,  and  usually  with 
a  distinct  projection  beside  the  scar  notch. 


♦Fig.   75. 

Alfalfa — adulterated:  (a)  alfalfa;  (bl  yellow  tre- 
foil. Alfalfa  seeds  are  more  or  less  kidney  shaped 
or  angular,  while  those  of  trefoil  are  more  uni- 
formly oval  and  have  the  small  projection  at  the 
scar  more  commonly  evident. 


•Adapted  from  Farmers'  Bulletin  382. 


Ill 


EXERCISE  XXXIV. 
IDENTIFICATION  OF  LEGUME     SEEDS. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  Twelve  small  vials  of  each  of  the  following:  crimson  clover, 
common  alfalfa,  burr  clover,  yellow  trefoil,  white  sweet  clover,  white  clover,  alsike  clover,  red  clover,  and  small 
yellow  annual  sweet  clover.  Twelve  small  vials  of  poor  quality  alfalfa  .seed.  Twenty-four  plates  to  be  used  as 
germinators.     A   few   sheets   of  blotting  paper.     Twelve  tripod  magnifiers. 

Part  A.     Detection  of  Adulterants  and  Substitutes. 

1.  In  answering  the  following  questions,  hit  upon  one  to  five  (preferably  two  or  three) 
important  and  strongly  distinguishing  points  of  difference.  In  recording  these  points  of  dif- 
ference, use  the  accompanying  "Comparison  Blank."  Keep  your  observations  on  points,  in 
which  comparison  is  made,  on  corresponding  lines  in  the  two  parallel  columns. 


Note,  for  example,,  how  comparison  is  made    between    white    clover    and    alsike    clover,   as 
called  for  in  the  first  question. 


(a) 
(b) 
(c) 
seed? 
(d) 
(e) 
(f) 
(g) 
(h) 


How  can  alsike  clover  seed  be  detected  in  white  clover  seed? 

How  can  red  clover  seed  be  detected  in  "alfalfa   seed? 

How  can  small  yellow  annual  sweet  clover    seed   be    detected 


white    sweet    clover 


How  can  white  sweet  clover  seed  be  detected  in  alfalfa  seed? 
How   can   crimson   clover   seed  be   detected  in  alfalfa  seed? 
How  can  yellow  trefoil  seed  be  detected  in  alfalfa  seed? 
How  can  burr  clover  seed  be  detected  in  alfalfa  seed? 

If  the  seed  of  either  white  sweet  clover  or  small  annual  yellow  sweet  clover  is  pres- 
ent to  any  extent  in  any  other  seed,  in  what  very  simple  way  can  the  fact  be  detected? 
(i)     Which   of  all   the   seeds  under   study   is  it  most  difficult  to  identify? 
(j)     Why  is  this  the  case? 


COMPARISON  BLANK  FOR  LEGUME  SEEDS. 


Questions 

Points   of 
Comparison 

Seeds   Compared 

(a) 

White    Clover 

Alsike  Clover 

Skin  texture 

Intermediate 

Dull 

Color 

Canary  yellow   to   yellow- 

Greenish yellow  to  green- 

ish    brown.      Individual 

ish      black.        Individual 

seeds  uniformly  colored 

seeds  mottled 

- 

(b) 

Alfalfa 

Red  Clover 

112 


COMPARISON  BLANK  FOR  LEGUME  SEEDS. 


Questions 

Points    of 
Comparison 

Seeds   Compared 

t 

'      • 

, 

113 


COMPARISON  BLANK  FOR  LEGUME  SEEDS. 


Questions 

Points  of 
Comparison 

Seeds  Compared 

» 

- 

• 

" 

114 


Part  B.     Mixtures  and  Adulterations. 

2.     The  same  directions  as  were  given  in  connection    with    grass    mixtures    will    apply    to 
mixtures   of  legume  seeds. 


Part  C.     Quality  and  Germination  of  Alfalfa  Seed. 

3.  A  small  sample  of  poor  alfalfa  seed  is  given  the  student  for  comparison  (in  quality) 
with  the  good  sample  previously  used. 

Alfalfa  seeds,  and  indeed  most  of  the  legume  seeds,  become  brown,  dark  and  dull  as  they 
become  very  old  or  are  otherwise  injured  in  vitality.  Immature  seeds  are  apt  to  be  rather 
green  in  color.     Compare  the  two  samples  of  common  alfalfa  marked  "good"  and  "poor." 

What  is  your  opinion  of  the  relative  values  of  these  two  alfalfa  samples  if  the  best  is 
priced  at  $10.00  per  bushel?  If  possible,  check  your  judgment  by  a  germination  test  of  the 
two.  In  making  the  germination  test  use  the  method  which  requires  two  plates  and  two 
pieces  of  dampened  cloths  or  blotters. 


115 


EXERCISE  XXXV. 
THE  QUALITY  OF  POTATOES. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  Each  student  should  be  supplied  with  ten  potatoes  of  those 
varieties  easily  obtained  locally.  The  groups  of  potatoes  should  be  designated  by  number.  A  balance,  twelve 
knives,  and  a   tin  hasin  will  also  be  needed   for  this  exercise. 

DIRECTIONS.  1.  Make  a  careful  study  of  the  samples  of  potatoes  according  to  the 
descriptive  outline  given  below.  Record  the  number  of  potatoes  in  a  given  sample  which 
conform  to  any  particular  descriptive  term.  For  example,  in  studying  shape,  if  four  of  the 
ten  potatoes  in  a  given  sample  are  oval  re*cord  the  number  four  in  the  proper  column  opposite 
the  word  oval. 


DESCRIPTIVE    FORM    FOR    POTATO    SAMPLES. 


Sample                            |   No.  1 

No.  2 

No.  3 

No.  4 

No.  5 

No.  6 

No  .7 

No.  8 

No,9 

No.  10 

1.  Color 

(a)     Whitish   . 

* 

(b)     Yellowish.. 

(d)     Reddish 



| 

2.  Size 

3.  Shape 

* 

(b)     Oval 

1 





(f)     Knotty 

4.  Eyes 

(a)     Abundance 

Few 





(b)     Depth 



5.  Skin 

(a)     Smoothness 

1 

i 

1 

• 

Wrinkled 

i 





.    ..    . 

1 1 

! 



1 

116 


DESCRIPTIVE  FORM  FOR  POTATO  SAMPLES— Continued. 


(b)     Condition 

1 
1 



| 





1   







| 

1 

6.  Internal  Condition 
(a)     Texture 

Fine  grained  and 

i 

Flabby  and  tough 
(b)     Soundness 

2.  (Classroom  experiment.)  From  the  supply  of  potatoes  at  hand  select  four  large, 
smooth  ones  with  shallow  eyes;  four  large,  smooth  ones  with  deep  eyes;  four  large,  rough, 
knotty  ones;  four  small  ones. 

First,  weigh  each  group  of  potatoes  and  then  peel  them.  A'fter  peeling,  weigh  each  group 
again.     Tabulate   data   as    indicated    by   the    following  form: 


Class 

Wt.  of  Whole 
Potatoes 

Wt.  of  Peeled 
Potatoes 

Wt.   of   Peelings 
Calculated 

Per  Cent  of 
Waste 

J.arge,  smooth  potatoes 

- 

Large,  smooth  potatoes 

* 

Large,     rough,     knotty 

. 

3.  If  sixty  pounds  of  the  large,  smooth  potatoes  with  shallow  eyes  are  worth  $1.00,  what 
are  each  of  the  other  classes  worth,  judged  from  the  standpoint  of  waste  in  peeling? 

4.  Describe  what  you   consider  to   be  a  good  potato,   bearing  in   mind  size,   shape,   eyes, 
internal  condition,  texture  of  skin,  etc. 


117 


EXERCISE  XXXVI. 
BORDEAUX  AND  OTHER  PROTECTIVE  MIXTURES. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  One-half  pound  of  copper  sulphate;  one-half  pound  of  quick- 
lime (lime  not  slacked);  24  test  tubes;  litmus  paper;  three  200  cc.  cylindrical  graduates;  balance;  one  one-liter 
solution  bottle;  five  250  cc.  beakers;  five  500  cc.  beakers;  wire  nails;  10  grams  of  potassium  ferrocyanide  dis- 
solved in  100  cc.  of  water  and  labeled  "Poison'1;  small  strips  of  ordinary  paper;  one  pint  of  kerosene;  one  cake 
of  soap ;  one-half  pound  of  resin ;  one-half  pound  of  beeswax ;  one-half  pound  of  tallow ;  twelve  evaporating  dishes ; 
one  ball  of  knitting  cotton  or  pieces  of  calico. 

INTRODUCTION.  Among  the  various  substances  used  for  the  protection  of  plants  are 
the  following: 

(1)  Fungicides — antiseptic  material  used  to  cover  those  portions  of  the  plant  susceptible 
to  diseases  caused  by  fungi.  Reference.  "Elements  of  Agriculture,"  Warren,  Articles  228- 
230. 

(2)  Insecticides — materials  used  to  to  destroy  insects.  Reference.  "Elements  of  Agricul- 
ture," Warren,  Articles  235-236. 

(3)  Protective    coverings    for   plant   wounds. 

Part  A.    Bordeaux  Mixture — A  Fungicide. 

1.  (a)  Test  a  solution  of  copper  sulphate  with  litmus  paper  to  determine  whether  it 
be  acid  or  alkaline,  (b)  Test  water  to  which  quicklime  has  been  added.  Is  it  acid  or  alka- 
line? (c)  Place  a  piece  of  red  litmus  paper  in  the  copper  sulphate  solution.  Slowly  add 
limewater,  stirring  it  as  it  is  added.  Does  the  red  litmus  paper  change  color?  (d)  What 
would  a  change  in  color  indicate?  When  a  solution  of  copper  sulphate  is  not  mixed  with 
sufficient  lime  it  is  injurious  to  growing  plants.  Copper  sulphate  solution  may,  however,  be 
applied   to   dormant   plants   with   but   little   fear  of  injury. 

2.  (Classroom  experiment.)  The  formula  for  Bordeaux  mixture  is  usually  given  as  fol- 
lows: ■. 

Copper  sulphate,  5  pounds. 

Quicklime  (lime  not  slacked)  4-5  pounds. 

Water,  50  gallons. 
Since  these  units  of  measure  are  not  convenient  for  demonstration  work  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  reduce  them  to  units  more  readily  handled.  It  may  be  shown  by  calculation  that  5 
pounds  of  material  to  50  gallons  of  water  gives  about  the  same  strength  of  solution  as  5  grams 
of  the  material  to  400  cubic  centimeters  of  water.  Since  this  is  true,  the  above  formula  might 
be  restated  as  follows: 

Copper  sulphate,  5  grams. 

Quicklime   (lime  not  slacked)   4-5  grams. 

Water,   400   cubic   centimeters. 
For  this  experiment  it  is  necessary  to  have  at  hand  a  liter   (1,000  cubic  centimeters)   of 
water  in  which  has  been  dissolved  25  grams  of  copper   sulphate.     Also   five  250  cc.   beakers, 
each   containing  200  cc.   of  water  to  which   has  been  added  quantities  of  quick  lime  varying 
in  order  from  1  to  5  grams. 

Measure  out  200  cc.  of  the  copper  sulphate  solution.  Now  pour  the  200  cc.  of  copper 
sulphate  solution  and  the  200  cc.  of  water  containing  1  gram  of  quicklime  into  a  500  cc. 
beaker  at  the  same  time.  In  the  same  manner  pour  together  200  cc.  of  copper  sulphate- 
solution  and  200  cc.  of  water  containing  2  grams  of  quicklime.  Continue  until  you  have  mixed 
200  cc.  of  copper  sulphate  solution  with  each  of  the  remaining  200  cc.  samples  of  water  and 
lime. 

118 


(a)  The  adding  of  200  cc.  of  copper  sulphate  solution  is  equivalent  to  adding  how  many 
grams   of  copper   sulphate   crystals? 

(b)  What  volume  of  liquid  does  each   500  cc.  beaker  contain? 

(c)  If  you  were  to  make  up  SO  gallons  of  each  of  these  five  strengths  of  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture  how   might  you   state   their   formulas,   using  pounds  and  gallons  as  units  of  measure? 

(d)  *To  determine  which  of  these  various  strengths  of  Bordeaux  mixture  are  safe  to  use 
on  tender  foliage,  immerse  a  wire  nail  or  tip  of  a  knife  blade  in  the  solution  for  at  least  one  min- 
ute. If  metallic  copper  is  deposited  on  the  iron  or  steel,  i.  e.,  the  iron  or  steel  becomes  the  color 
of  copper,  it  is  not  safe  to  apply  the  mixture  to  tender  foliage.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  iron 
or  steel  remains  unchanged,  it  is  safe  to  conclude  that  the  mixture  is  all  right.  By  this  test, 
which  of  the   five  mixtures  are  safe   to  apply  to   tender   foliage? 

(e)  Which    are    not? 

(f)  Another  test  for  the  proper  strength  of  Bordeaux  mixture  may  be  made  by  blow- 
ing over  the  surface  of  the  mixture  for  at  least  one-half  minute.  If  properly  made,  a  thin 
oil-like  scum  will  form  on  the  surface.  Do  the  results  of  this  test  agree  with  those  of  the 
former? 

(g)  A  third  test  may  be  made  by  dipping  a  strip  of  paper  into  a  weak  solution  of 
ferrocyanide  of  potassium  and  then  into  the  Bordeaux  mixture.  If  there  is  not  enough  lime 
present,  a  dark  reddish-brown  substance  will  form.  If  enough  lime  is  present,  it  will  remain 
unchanged.     In  which  mixtures  does  this  test  show  a  lack  of  lime? 

(h)     Does  this  agree  with  the  former  tests? 

Part  B.     Kerosene  Emulsion — A  Contact  Insecticide. 

3.  The  formula   for  kerosene  emulsion  is  usually   given   as   follows: 

Kerosene   (coal  oil),  2  gallons. 

Water,    1    gallon. 

Soap,   one-half  pound. 
To   kill   plant   lice,   dilute   with   40-60  gallons  of  water. 

To  illustrate  the  preparation  of  this  insecticide  in  the  laboratory,  dissolve  one-half  gram 
of  soap  in  8  cc.  of  water  by  boiling  it  in  a  test  tube.  After  the  soap  is  dissolved,  remove 
the  test  tube  from  the  flame  and  add  16  cc.  of  kerosene.  Shake  the  contents  of  the  tube 
until  a  creamy  emulsion  is  formed.  After  you  have  obtained  a  creamy  emulsion,  dilute  it 
with  about  350  cc.  of  water.  When  diluted  to  this  extent  it  will  kill  plant  lice  and  at  the 
same  time  do  very  little  harm  to  the  plant  foliage. 

(a)  Why  not  apply  Paris  green  to  plant  lice   instead   of  kerosene   emulsion? 
Reference.     "Elements  of  Agriculture,"   Warren,  Article  235. 

(b)  How    would    you    prepare    Paris    green  as  a  poison  for  insects? 
Reference.     "Elements   of  Agriculture,"   Warren,  Article  239. 

Part  C.     Wax — A  Protective  Covering  for  Plant  Wounds. 

4.  To  make  a  small  sample  of  a  very  reliable  wax,  melt  together  in  an  evaporating 
dish  8  grams  of  resin,  4  grams  of  beeswax  and  2  grams  of  tallow.  After  melting  the  material, 
put  it  into  a  vessel  of  cold  water.  Then  grease  the  fingers  a  little  and  pull  the  wax  until 
it  is  almost  white.  State  two  reasons  why  it  is  necessary  to  protect  fresh  grafts  with  such 
material. 

5.  Remelt  the  wax  which  you  have  just  prepared.  Into  the  melted  wax  dip  a  piece  of 
knitting  cotton  or  a  short  strip  of  calico.  When  saturated  allow  it  to  cool.  When  this 
material  is  used  for  wrapping  plant  wounds  it  should  be  warm  enough  to  stick  without  tying. 
What  advantage  is  there  in  the  use  of  waxed  cloth  or  string  over  wax  alone? 


♦  Note.     Bordeaux    mixture    should    always    be    well  stirred   before   testing. 

119 


EXERCISE  XXXVII. 
SEED  HOUSE  CATALOGUES. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  A  catalogue  from  each  of  the  following  seed  houses  represent- 
ing the  various   sections  of  the   United   States : 

Amzi   Godden   Seed   Co.,    Birmingham,   Alabama. 
Barteldes  Seed   Co.,   Lawrence,  Kansas. 
Berry   Seed   Co.,   Clarinda,   Iowa. 
Buckbee   Seed   Co.,    Rockford,    Illinois. 
Dakota  Improved  Seed  Co.,   Mitchell,  S.   D. 
Farmer  Seed  and  Nursery  Co.,  Faribault,   Minn. 
Great    Northern    Seed    House,    Rockford,    Illinois. 
Gurney  Seed  Co.,  Yankton,  S.  D. 
Henry   Field  Seed   Co.,  Shenandoah,   Iowa. 
Iowa  Seed  Co.,   Des  Moines,  Iowa. 
Northrup,    King  and   Company,   Minneapolis,   Minn. 
Olds   Seed   Co.,   Madison,   Wis. 
Portland  Seed   Co.,   Portland,   Oregon. 
.     Ratekin's  Seed  House,  Shenandoah,  Iowa. 
Salzer  Seed  Company,   La  Crosse,  Wis. 
Texas  Seed  and  Floral  Company,   Dallas,  Texas. 
Thorburn   &  Co.,   53   Barclay   St.,   54   Park   Place,   New   York  City. 
Vaughan  Seed  Co.,  31-33  W.  Randolph  St.,  Chicago,  111. 
Willets'   Seed   Co.,  Augusta,   Ga. 
Wills*  Pioneer  Seed  House,  Bismark,  N.  D. 
Wood,    Stubbs   &    Co.,   Seedsmen,   219-221    E.    Jefferson   St.,    Louisivlle,    Ky. 

DIRECTIONS.  First  read  the  explanation  of  points  to  be  considered  in  the  study  of 
seed  catalogues  and  then  select  some  one  of  the  seed  catalogues  from  the  supply  which  you 
have  at  hand.  Study  the  catalogue  according  to  the  order  suggested  in  the  explanatory  out- 
line and  at  the  same  time  make  a  careful  record  concerning  various  points  as  indicated  in  the 
record  form  given  at  the  close  of  this  exercise.  During  the  laboratory  period  make  a  study 
of  as  many  catalogues  as  time  will  permit. 

EXPLANATION    OF    POINTS    TO    BE    CONSIDERED   IN   THE   STUDY   OF   SEED 

CATALOGUES. 

I.  Considerations  which   do   not   involve   the  ideals  and  policies  of  the  firm. 

A.  Location  (Favorableness  of  with  reference  to  yourself  as  a  customer). 

1.  Distance. 

2.  Railroad  facilities. 

B.  Age. 

C.  Size — as  judged  from  completeness  of  stock,  illustrations  of  buildings,  trial  grounds, 

etc. 

II.  Considerations  often  involving  the  ideals  and  policies  of  the  firn.. 
A.     Attitude  of  firm  toward  crops  of  local  or  doubtful  value. 

1.  Crops   of   only   local   value. 

a.  Durum  wheat  (often  called  "Macaroni).     Of  value  only  in   dry  sections — west 

Nebraska,  for  example. 

(1)  Catalogued  or  not? 

(2)  Recommended    strongly   or  not? 

(3)  Special   use   or   regional  adaptation  explained? 

(4)  Price  per  bushel. 

b.  Emmer-White  Spring  (often  misnamed    "Spelts").      Of    little    value    except    in 

cold   and   dry   regions,   for   instance,  the  drier  and  colder  parts  of  "The  States 
of   the   Plains." 

(1)  Catalogued  or  not? 

(2)  Recommended    strongly   or  not? 

(3)  Special  use  or  regional  adaptation  explained? 

(4)  Price  per  bushel. 

120 


2.  Crops    of    relatively    little    value    in  any  locality. 

a.  Japanese    Barnyard    Millet    (often   advertised   as    Billion    Dollar    Grass). 

(1)  Catalogued  or  not? 

(2)  Catalogued    under    one    or  more  names? 

(3)  Under   what   name   catalogued  if  but  one  name  is  used? 

(4)  Is  it  explained  that  all  names  used  mean  the  same  thing? 

(5)  Recommended  strongly  or  not? 

(6)  Are  any  of  the  faults  of  this  crop  pointed  out? 

(7)  If    listed    under    more    than  one  name  are  the  prices  identical? 

(8)  Price  per  pound. 

b.  Pearl  Millet   (often  advertised  as  Mand's  Wonder  Grass  or  Pencilaria). 

(1)  Catalogued  or  not? 

(2)  Catalogued  under  one  or  more  names? 

(3)  Under  what  name  catalogued  if  but  one  name  is  used? 

(4)  Is  it  explained  that  all  names  used  mean  the  same  thing? 

(5)  Recommended  strongly  or  not? 

(6)  Are  any  of  the  faults  of  this  crop  pointed  out? 

(7)  If  listed  under   more   than  one  name  are  the  prices  identical? 

(8)  Price   per  pound. 

c.  Teosinte. 

(1)   Catalogued    or    not? 

(2)  Recommended  strongly"  or  not? 

(3)  Special  use  or  regional  adaptation  explained? 

(4)  Price   per  pound. 

B.  Deceptive    naming   and   pretensions   as   to   special   varieties.     Does   the   firm   list   an 

undue  number  of  field  crop  plants  which  are  said  or  inferred  to  be  originated  by 
themselves?  For  instance,  does  the  "Blank"  Seed  Co.  list  crimson  clover  as  crim- 
son clover  or  under  some  such  a  name  as  "Blank's"  Giant  Scarlet  Clover? 

C.  Interest  in  crop  improvement.     One  of  the  best  ways  in  which  this  interest  is  shown 

is  by  seeking  out  specially  adapted  varieties  of,  and  otherwise  encouraging,  val- 
uable but  locally  unapprecitaed  crops.  For  instance,  what  is  a  seed  house  in  the 
"Northwest"  doing  toward  securing  and  pushing  varieties  of  corn  and  alfalfa 
which  are  relatively  well  adapted  to  local  conditions  and  have  real  merit? 

D.  Attitude    towards    seed   control   stations. 

1.  Does  the  firm  recommend  that  the  purchaser  make  use  of  the  seed  control  sta- 

tions? 

2.  Does  the  firm  agree  to  abide  by  the  findings  of  the  seed  control  stations? 

3.  Does  the   firm  allow  sufficient  time  for  the  findings  of  the  seed  control  station  to 

be    reported   before   the   guarantee  expires? 

E.  Special  or  firm  brands  of  grass  and  legume  "seeds."     Does  the   firm  put  out  special 

brands  of  grass  and  legume  "seeds"  which  stand  for  definite  grades  of  quality? 

F.  Guarantee.    (Since  all  seed  houses  justly  refuse  to  be  responsible  for  the  crop  grown 

from  seeds  sold,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  consider  this  point  in  the  guarantee.) 

1.  Is  thje  so-called  guarantee  worded  in  such  a  way  that  the  purchaser,  in  not  re- 

turning the  seeds  immediately  upon  their  arrival,  frees  the  firm  from  all  further 
responsibility  whatsoever? 

2.  Is  safe  arrival  guaranteed? 

3.  Is  seed  guaranteed  to  be  as  represented,   or   true   to   name   and   description? 

4.  Is  seed  guaranteed  to  be  viable? 

121 


G.  Conservatism,  fairness  and  accuracy  in  presentation — as  indicated  by 

1.  Catalogue    cover. 

2.  Illustrations — truthfulness    of. 

3.  Names  applied  to  varieties. 

4.  Statements  concerning  the  material   offered   for  sale. 

H.  Conservatism  in  the  giving  of  premiums.     Does  the  firm  make  lavish  use  of  premiums 
and  other  special  inducements? 


122 


FORM  OF  REPORT  FOR  THE  STUDY 

OF  SEED  CATALOGUES. 

Form  of 
Answer 

Catalogue    Names 

T 
Am 

A.  Location 

Short  or  long 
Few  or  many 
Old  or  young 

Large  or  small 

Yes  or  no 
Yes  or  no 
Yes  or  no 
$  or  cts. 
Yes  or  no 
Yes  or  no 
Yes  or  no 
$  or  cts. 

Yes  or  no 

Yes  or  no 

Give  name 
or  names 

Yes  or  no 
Yes  or  no 
Yes  or  no 

Yes  or  no 
$  or  cts. 

Yes  or  no 
Yes  or  no 

B.  Age 

11. 

A.  1.  Attitude  toward  crops 
of  only  local  value 
a.  Durum  wheat 

(2)  Recommended    strongly? 

(3)  Use   explained? 

• 

b.  Emmer 

(1)  Catalogued? 

(2)  Recommended    strongly? 

(4)  Price  per  bushel 

2.  Attitude     towards     crops     of 

relatively  little  value. 
a.  Japanese  Barnyard  Millet 

(2)   Under     more     than     one 

(3)  What  name  or  names?.. 

(4)  Explained     that     names 

mean  the  same  thing?.. 

(5)  Recommended    strongly? 

(6)  Faults  pointed  out? 

(7)  If  listed  under  more  than 

one     name     are     prices 

■ 

(8)   Price   per   pound 

b.  Pearl  Millet 

(2)  Under    more    than    one 

123 


FORM  OF  REPORT  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  SEED  CATALOGUES.— (Continued.) 


(3)  What  name  or  names?.. 

(4)  Explained     that     names 

mean  the  same  thing?.. 

(5)  Recommended   strongly? 


(6)  Faults  pointed  out? 

(7)  If  listed  under  more  than 
one     name,     are     prices 

identical? 


(8)  Price   per  pound. 
•c.  Teosinte 

(1)  Catalogued? 


(2)  Recommended    strongly? 

(3)  Use  explained? 

(4)  Price  per  pound 

B.  Deceptive  naming? 


C.  Interest  in  crop  improvement?.. 

D.  1.  Seed   control    station   recom- 

mended?  


2.  Agree    to   abide   by   findings 
of  the  same? 


3.  Sufficient  time  allowed? 

E.  Special     brands     of    grass     and 

legume  seeds? 

F.  1.  Does  purchaser  automatically 

free    the    firm    from     their 
guarantee? 


2.  Safe  arrival  guaranteed?.... 

3.  True    to    name    and    descrip- 

tion?  


■  4.  Viability  ? 

G.  1.  Conservative  cover? 

2.  Illustrations? 

3.  Names? 

4.  Statements? 

H.  Conservatism   in   premiums?. 


Form  of 
Answer 


Give  name 
or  names 

Yes  or  no 
Yes  or  no 
Yes  or  no 

Yes  or  no 
$  or  cts. 

Yes  or  no 
Yes  or  no 
Yes  or.  no 
$  or  cts. 
Yes  or  no 
Yes  or  no 

Yes  or  no 

Yes  or  no 
Yes  or  no 

Yes  or  no 

Yes  or  no 
Yes  or  no 

Yes  or  no 
Yes  or  no 
Yes  or  no 
Yes  or  no 
Yes  or  no 
Yes  or  no 
Yes  or  no 
124 


Catalogue    Names 


FORM  OF  REPORT  FOR 

THE  STUDY  OF  SEED 

CATALOGUES. 

Form  of 
Answer 

Catalogue     Names 

I. 

A.  Location 

Short  or  long 
Few  or  many 
Old  or  young 
Large  or  small 

Yes  or  no 
Yes  or  no 
Yes  or  no 
$  or  cts. 

Yes  or  no 
Yes  or  no 
Yes  or  no 
$  or  cts. 

Yes  or  no 

Yes  or  no 

Give  name 
or  names 

Yes  or  no 
Yes  or  no 
Yes  or  no 

Yes  or  no 
$  or  cts. 

Yes  or  no 
Yes  or  no 

II. 

A.  1.  Attitude     toward     crops     of 
only  local  value. 
a.  Durum  wheat 

(2)   Recommended    strongly? 

b.  Emmer 

(2)  Recommended    strongly? 

(3)  Use  explained' 

2.  Attitude     toward     crops     of 
relatively  little  value. 

a.  Japanese  Barnyard  Millet 

(2)   Under     more     than     one 

(3)  What  name   or  names?.. 

(4)  Explained      that      names 

mean  the  same  thing?.. 

(5)  Recommended   strongly? 

(6)  Faults  pointed  out? 

(7)  If  listed  under  more  than 
one     name,     are     prices 

« 

b.  Pearl  Millet 

(2)   Under     more     than     one 

name? ' 

i 

125 


FORM  OF  REPORT  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  SEED  CATALOGUES.— (Continued.) 


(3)  What  name  or  names?.. 

(4)  Explained     that     names 

mean  the  same  thing?.. 

(5)  Recommended   strongly? 


Form  of 
Answer 


(6)  Faults  pointed  out? 

(7)  If  listed  under  more  than 

one     name     are     prices 
identical? 


(8)  Price  per  pound. 
c.  Teosinte 

(1)  Catalogued? 


Give  name 
or  names 

Yes  or  no 
Yes  or  no 
Yes  or  no 

Yes  or  no 
$  or  cts. 


Yes  or  no 

(2)  Recommended   strongly?    Yes  or  no 

(3)  Use  explained? Yes  or  no 

(4)  Price  per  pound $  or  cts. 

B.  Deceptive  naming? Yes  or  no 

C.  Interest  in  crop  improvement?..  Yes  or  no 


D.  1.  Seed   control   station   recom- 
mended?  


2.  Agree    to    abide    by    findings 
of  the  same? 


3.  Sufficient  time  allowed?....'. 

E.  Special     brands     of     grass     and 

legume  seeds? 

F.  1.  Does  purchaser  automatically 

free    the    firm    from     their 
guarantee? 

2.  Safe  arrival  guaranteed? 


3.  True    to    name    and    descrip- 
tion?  


4.  Viability? 

G.  1.  Conservative  cover? 

2.  Illustrations? 

3.  Names? 

4.  Statements? 

H.  Conservatism  in  premiums?. 


Yes  or  no 

Yes  or  no 
Yes  or  no 

Yes  or  no 

Yes  or  no 
Yes  or  no 

Yes  or  no 
Yes  or  no 
Yes  or  no 
Yes  or  no 
Yes  or  no 

Yes  or  no 
Yes  or  no 

126 


Catalogue     Names 


EXERCISE  XXXVIII. 
FOOD  MATERIALS  STORED  BY  PLANTS. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  Starch;  twelve  test  tubes;  iodine  solution  (first  dissolve  a 
little  iodine  in  alcohol  and  then  dilute  with  water);  corn;  wheat;  beans;  peas;  potato;  oatmeal;  raisins;  apple; 
twelve  reagent  bottles  filled  with  nitric  acid;  twelve  reagent  bottles  filled  with  ammonia;  glucose;  cane  sugar; 
Fehling's  solution;  olive  oil;  English  walnuts;  twelve  tin  spoons;  filter  paper;  a  little  carbon  in  the  form  of 
charcoal. 

Part  A.     Starch.   . 

1.  Place  a  very  little  starch  in  a  test  tube.  Add  a  few  drops  of  iodine  solution.  Observe 
any  change  in  color.  Substances  which  show  a  similar  change  in  color  when  treated  with 
iodine  will  be  found  to  contain  starch.  As  a  rule  the  intensity  of  color  is  proportional  to  the 
amount  of  starch  present. 

2.  Cut  a  cross  section  of  a  kernel  of  corn  a  little  nearer  the  point  than  the  middle. 
Treat  with  iodine  solution,  (a)  Observe  any  change  in  color,  (b)  From  the  variation  in 
intensity  of  color,  infer  what  portion  of  the  kernel  contains  the  most  starch. 

3.  Test  wheat,  oatmeal,  potato,  apple,  raisins,  peas,  and  beans  for  starch.  Record  the 
result  of  each  test. 

Part  B.    Protein. 

4.  All  proteids  are  turned  yellow  by  nitric  acid.  To  intensify  the  yellow  color,  rinse  the 
substance  with  water  and  add  ammonia. 

Cut  a  cross  section  of  a  kernel  of  corn  a  little  nearer  the  tip  than  the  middle.  Place  the 
parts  in  a  test  tube.  Add  a  little  nitric  acid.  Let  stand  for  a  few  moments  and  then  drain 
the  acid  into  the  waste  jar.  Rinse  with  water  and  moisten  with  ammonia.  Variation  in 
intensity  of  color  indicates  variation  in  the  amount  of  protein  present  in  the  different  parts  of 
the  kernel.     Observe  which  parts  of  the  kernel  contain  the  greatest  amount  of  protein. 

5.  Test  wheat,  oatmeal,  potato,  apple  and  beans,  for  protein.  Record  the  result  of  each 
test. 

Part  C.     Sugars. 

6.  (a)  To  a  small  amount  of  glucose  in  a  test  tube  add  an  inch  of  water  and  then  a 
few  drops  of  Fehling's  solution.  Bring  the  solution  to  a  boiling  temperature.  Observe  any 
change  in  color.  A  change  in  color  shows  the  presence  of  grape  sugar.  (b)  Test  cane 
sugar  as  you  have  glucose.  Record  the  results  of  the  test.  Glucose  is  a  sugar  commonly 
stored  by  plants. 

7.  Test  the  following  for  glucose:  Potato,  apple,  raisins,  and  beans.  Record  the  result 
of  each  test. 

Part  D.     Fat. 

8.  Place  a  drop  of  olive  oil  on  a  piece  of  clean  white  paper,  (a)  Observe  the  appear- 
ance of  the  paper,     (b)     Recall  the  source  of  olive  oil. 

127 


9.  (a)  Lay  a  piece  of  paper  on  the  radiator  or  some  other  warm  surface.  Rub  the  meat 
of  an  English  walnut  over  the  warmed  paper.  Infer  concerning  the  presence  of  fat.  (b)  Re- 
peat, using  the  "germs"  of  kernels  of  corn.  Infer  concerning  the  presence  of  fat  in  the 
"germ."    (c)     In  a  similar  manner  test  oatmeal.     Infer  concerning  the  presence  of  fat  in  oats. 


Part  E.    Carbon  an  Element  Present  in  All  Foods  Stored  by  Plants. 

10.  (Classroom  experiment.)  Burn  a  small  quantity  of  starch  in  a  spoon,  (a)  Observe 
what  is  left  in  the  spoon,  (b)  Compare  the  substance  remaining,  with  a  sample  of  charcoal. 
Charcoal  is  almost  pure  carbon,  (c)  From  what  source  did  the  plant  obtain  the  carbon?  (d) 
Hold  some  charcoal  (carbon)  in  a  hot  flame  for  some  time.    Does  it  burn? 

11.  Treat  a  small  quantity  of  sugar  as  in  10  above.  Compare  the  result  of  burning  sugar 
with  that  of  burning  starch. 

12.  Saturate  a  piece  of  filter  paper  with  olive  oil.  Light  the  paper,  (a)  Observe  the 
color  of  the  smoke  given  off  by  the  oil.  Hold  an  evaporating  dish  in  the  smoke,  (b)  Ob- 
serve the  nature  of  the  substance  deposited  upon  it. 

13.  Exp.  10,  11,  and  12  above  show  the  presence  of  what  element  in  the  plant  foods 
studied? 


128 


EXERCISE  XXXIX. 
TYPES  OF  FARM  ANIMALS.* 

Part  A.     Horses. 

INTRODUCTION.  In  order  to  have  horses  -which  are  fitted  to  various  kinds  of  work 
it  has  been  necessary  to  select  and  breed  them  along  different  lines.  For  instance,  the  draft 
horse,  Fig.  76,  which  is  needed  for  heavy  and  relatively  slow  pulling,  must,  like  a  locomotive 
designed  for  a  similar  purpose,  "carry  its  weight"  relatively  low  and  be  powerfully  and  heavily 
built.  The  light  harness  horse,  illustrated  by  Fig.  77,  has  on  the  other  hand  been  bred  for 
style,  action,  speed,  and  endurance. 

DIRECTIONS.  1.  Compare  the  illustrations  of  the  two  types  of  horses  as  suggested 
by  the  following: 


Types  of  Horses 


Draft 


Harness 


Form    (Rangy — blocky)    

Weight    (Relative)    

Temperament   (Mild-spirited)    .    ... 

Head   (Relative  size)    

Neck  (Comparative  length)   

Neck   (Comparative   thickness)    

- 
Shoulders    (Heavy — light)    

Legs   (Relative  length)    i 

Underline   (Relative  height)    

Muscling  of  legs  below  the  body  line 

(Heavy — light)    

2.     What  has  brought  about  draft  and  harness  types  of  horses? 


*In  this  exercise  only  extreme  types  are  used   for  study. 


129 


Fig.   76.     Draft  Type. 


Fig.    77.     Ligb»   Parness  Type. 

130 


Part  B.     Cattle. 

INTRODUCTION.  The  most  highly  developed  breeds  of  cattle  are  usually  meant  for 
one  or  the  other  of  two  purposes — beef  production  or  milk  production.  The  beef  type  of 
cattle,  illustrated  by  Fig.  78,  has  been  bred  to  produce  the  maximum  amount  of  salable  meat 
from  a  given  supply  of  food.  The  dairy  type,  illustrated  by  Fig.  79,  has  been  bred  to  pro- 
duce a  maximum  amount  of  milk  solids  (on  ati  average  milk  contains  87%  of  water  and  13% 
of  solids)   upon  a  given  supply  of  food. 


DIRECTIONS.      1.      Compare   the   illustrations  of  the  two  types  of  cattle  as  suggested 
by  the  following: 


Types  of  Cattle 


Beef 


Form    ( Rangy — blocky)     

Weight    (Relative)    

Neck   (Relative   length)    

Neck   (Relative  thickness).... 

Head    (Blocky — angular)    

Brisket  (Relative  fullness)    ... 

Legs   (Relative  length)    

Back   (Relative  width)   

Top  line   (Straight — irregular) 
Under  line   (Relative  height).. 
Hips    (Prominent — smooth)    ... 
Thighs   (Thin— full) 


Muscling    of    legs    below    body    line' 
(Heavy— light)    


Depth   of  flesh   covering   over   bones 
(Relative)    


Dairy 


2.     What  in  your  opinion  has  brought  about  dairy  and  beef  types  of  cattle? 


131 


Fig,  78.    Beef  Type, 


Fig.  79.     Dairy  Type. 
132 


Part  C.     Hogs. 

INTRODUCTION.  Among  the  various  breeds  of  hogs  two  extremes  of  type  are  readily 
recognized — the  lard  type  and  the  bacon  type.  The  lard  type,  which  apparently  makes  excel- 
lent use  of  a  very  concentrated  diet  such  as  corn,  has  always  been  the  dominant  hog  in  the 
corn  belt.  This  hog  furnishes  good  hams  and  shoulders,  bacon  of  fair  quality,  and  a  relatively 
large  amount  of  lard.  The  bacon  type  of  hog  is  apparently  better  fitted  to  do  well  on  the  less 
concentrated  diet  characteristic  of  regions  which  grow  little  or  no  corn.  Hogs  of  this  type  are 
noted  for  the  superior  quality  of  their  bacon. 


DIRECTIONS.     1. 

by  the  following  form: 


Make  a  comparison  of  the  lard  and  bacon  types  of  hogs  as  suggested 


Types  of  Hogs 


Lard 


Bacon 


Form    (Rangy — blocky)    

Fleshing   (Relative   depth).., 

Head   (Relative  size) 

Neck  (Relative  length) 

Neck  (Relative  thickness)... 
Jowl   (Relative   fullness)    .... 

Legs  (Relative  length)    

Underline    (Relative   height). 

Body  (Relative  depth)     

Body  (Relative  length)    


Body  (Relative  width) 
Hams    (Full— thin)    ..  . 


2.     In  your  opinion  what  has  brought  about  the  different  types  of  hogs? 


133 


Fig.  80.     Lard  Type. 


Fig.  81.     Bacon  Type. 

134 


Part  D.     Sheep. 

INTRODUCTION.  The  purposes  for  which  sheep  have  been  bred  have  brought  about 
two  general  types.  The  mutton  type  has  been  bred  primarily  for  mutton,  with  wool  as  a 
secondary  consideration;  the  wool  type  has  been  bred  primarily  for  wool,  with  mutton  as  a 
secondary  consideration. 


DIRECTIONS. 

following  form: 


1.     Compare   the   mutton   and   wool   types   of  sheep   as   suggested   by   the 


Types  of  Sheep 


Wool 


Mutton 


Form    (Rangy — block  \  i 


§                                                              % 
Weight  (Relative)    


Neck  ( Relative  length)    

Neck   (Relative  thickness) 

Brisket    (Relative   fullness) 

Legs   (Relative  length)    

Back  (Relative  width) 

Underline    (Relative   height) 

Thigh   (Full— thin)    

2.     In  general,  what  has  determined  the  difference   in  the  two  types  of  sheep? 


135 


■ 


Fig.  82.     Mutton  Type. 


Fig.  83.     Wool  Type. 
136 


Part  E.     Chickens. 

INTRODUCTION.  Use  has  also  determined  two  types  of  chickens — the  meat  type 
and  the  egg  type.  The  heavy  meat  type  is  useful  for  the  production  of  meat  of  superior 
quality.  Breeds  of  this  type  produce  enough  eggs  to  perpetuate  themselves  and  supply  young 
chickens  for  the  market.  The  breeders  of  the  egg  type  of  chickens  have  aimed  at  egg  pro- 
duction and  have  been  willing  to  sacrifice  meat  to  secure  it. 

DIRECTIONS.     1.     Compare  figures  84  and  85.  as  suggested  by  the  following  form: 


Body    (Rangy — blocky) 
Temperament    (Active — sluggish) 

Comb    (Relative   size) 

Wattles  (Relative  size)   

Plumage  (Close — loose)    

Fleshing   (Light — heavy)   

Back   (Relative   width) 

Breast    (Relative  width) 

Legs   (Freedom   from   feathers) . . 


Egg 


2.     What   in  general  has  brought  about  two    types    within    each    group    of    farm    animals? 


137 


Fig.  84.     Meat  type. 


Fig.   85.     Egg  type. 

138 


EXERCISE  XL. 
BREEDS  OF  FARM  ANIMALS— THEIR  PLACE  OF  ORIGIN. 

Supplies  for  a   Laboratory   Section  of  Twelve.     A   large  wall  map  of  the  world ;  a  copy  of  some  good  geography. 

DIRECTIONS.  On  the  outline  map  of  the  British  Isles,  page  141,  indicate  what  breeds 
of  farm  animals  have  come  from  England,  Scotland,  Wales,  Shetland  Isles,  Isle  of  Jersey, 
Isle  of  Guernsey.  On  the  outline  map  of  the  world,  page  142,  indicate  the  place  of  origin 
of  all  breeds  not  previously  located. 

Breeds  of  Farm  Animals. 


Breed 
Horses —    Percheron 
Belgian 
Clydesdale 
Shire 

French  Draft 
Suffolk 

Cleveland  Bay 
French  Coach 
Hafkney 
German  Coach 
Morgan 

American  Trotter 
Arabian 
Thoroughbred 
American  Saddler 
Shetland 
Welch 

Cattle —      Hereford 

Aberdeen  Angus 

Galloway 

Shorthorn 

Polled   Durham 

Red  Polled 

Devon 

Jersey 

Holstein-Friesian 

Guernsey 

Ayrshire 

Dutch  Belted 

Brown  Swiss 

Hogs —       Poland  China 
Duroc  Jersey 
Chester  White 
Berkshire 
Cheshire 
Victoria 
Essex 

Small  Yorkshire 
Tamworth 
Large  Yorkshire 


Place  of  Origin 

Type  and  Use 

France 

Draft 

Belgium 

Draft 

Scotland 

Draft 

England 

Draft 

France 

Draft 

England 

Draft 

England 

Heavy  harness 

France 

Heavy  harness 

England 

Heavy  harness 

Germany 

Heavy  harness 

United  States 

Light  harness 

United  States 

Light  harness 

Arabia 

Saddle 

England 

Saddle 

United  States 

Saddle 

Shetland   Isles 

Pony 

Wales 

Pony 

England 

Beef 

Scotland 

Beef 

Scotland 

Beef 

England 

Beef — dual  purpose 

United  States 

Beef — dual  purpose 

England 

Dual  purpose 

England 

Dual  purpose 

Isle  of  Jersey 

Dairy 

Holland 

Dairy 

Isle  of  Guernsey 

Dairy 

Scotland 

Dairy 

Holland 

Dairy 

Switzerland 

Dairy 

Ohio 

Lard 

New  York,  Vt.,  Conn.,  N.  J. 

Lard 

Pennsylvania,   Ohio 

Lard 

England 

Lard 

New  York 

Lard 

Indiana,  New  York 

Lard 

England 

Lard 

England 

Lard 

England 

Bacon 

England 

Bacon 

139 


Breed 

Place  of  Origin 

Type  and  Use 

Sheep —      Southdown 

England 

Mutton 

Shropshire 

England 

Mutton 

Oxford 

England 

Mutton 

Hampshire 

England 

Mutton 

Dorset-Horn 

England 

Mutton 

Cheviot 

England  and  Scotland 

Mutton 

Tunis 

Africa 

Mutton 

Leicester 

England 

Mutton 

Cotswold 

England 

Mutton 

Lincoln 

England 

Mutton 

American  Merino 

United  States 

Wool 

Delaine  Merino 

United  States 

Wool 

Rambouillet 

France 

Wool 

• 

Chickens — Cochin 

England    (original    stock 
China) 

from 

Meat 

■     Brahma 

New    England     (original 
from  India) 

stock 

Meat 

Langshan 

England  (principally) 

Meat 

Plymouth  Rock 

New  England 

General   purpose 

Wyandotte 

New  York 

General   purpose 

Rhode  Island  Red 

Southern  New  England 

General  purpose 

Leghorn 

Italy 

Egg 

Minorca 

Island  of  Minorca  off  the 
of  Spain 

coast 

Egg 

140 


>>      \V-w 


Outline  Map  of  the  British  Isles. 
141 


< 


142 


1.  Through  references  which  you  have  at  hand  find  out  what  you  can  about  the  climate 
and  soil  of  Arabia,  the  Shetland  Isles,  and  Belgium.  Do  you  observe  any  relation  to  exist 
between   environment  and   use   on   the  one  hand,  and  type  of  horse  produced  on  the  other? 

2.  (a)  In  what  part  of  the  world  have  most  of  our  breeds  of  cattle  originated?  (b)  Can 
you  see  any  reason  why  the  Isle  of  Guernsey  and  the  Isle  of  Jersey  should  produce  dairy 
breeds  of  cattle  rather  than  beef? 

3.  How  do  you  explain  that  corn  belt  conditions  have  been  necessary  to  perfect  the  lard 
type  of  hog?  (b)  That  conditions  in  England  are  favorable  to  the  production  of  a  bacon 
type  rather  than  a  lard  type  of  hog? 

4.  Collect  from  farm  papers  and  other  sources  typical  illustrations  of  the  various  breeds 
of  farm  animals. 


!4> 


EXERCISE  XLL 
DISTRIBUTION   OF   CATTLE  AND  HOGS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Supplies   for  a   Laboratory   Section   of   Twelve.      Bottle  each  of  red  and  blue  ink. 

Part  A.     Cattle. 

DIRECTIONS.  On  an  outline  map  of  the  United  States  show  the  distribution  of  cattle 
by  placing  a  dot  in  each  state  for  every  10,000  head.  Indicate  the  distribution"  of  milch  cows 
by  use  of  red  dots  and  the  distribution  of  other  cattle  by  blue  dots. 

.  ,  ...                                                                                                                            Milch  Other 

State                                                                                                                  Cows*  Cattle* 

Maine   157,000  99,000 

New  Hampshire 96,000  66,000 

Vermont    265,000  168,000 

Massachusetts   165,000  81,000 

Rhode  Island  23,000  11,000 

Connecticut    118,000  71,000 

New  York   1,465,000  876,000 

New  Jersey   146,000  66,000 

Pennsylvania   943,000  614,000 

Delaware    38,000  19,000 

Maryland  168,000  120,000 

Virginia   345,000  459,000 

West  Virginia 230,000  331,000 

North  Carolina  312,000  372,000 

South  Carolina   185,000  215,000 

Georgia    402,000  667,000 

Florida 123,000  766,000 

Ohio  869,000  814,000 

Indiana    634,000  686,000 

Illinois  1,007,000  1,228,000 

Michigan  798,000  673,000 

Wisconsin  1,504,000  1,135,000 

Minnesota : 1,129,000  1,139,000 

Iowa  1,337,000  2,607,000 

Missouri    789,000  1,444,000 

North  Dakota  277,000  437,000 

South  Dakota   384,000  894,000 

Nebraska  607,000  1,902,000 

Kansas  698,000  1,778,000 

Kentucky    390,000  555,000 

Tennessee  : 366,000  530,000 

Alabama    396,000  535,000 

Mississippi    434,000  521,000 

Louisiana    271,000  444,000 

Texas   1,034,000  5,022,000 

Oklahoma  484,000  1,155,000 

Arkansas   392,000         •  500,000 

Montana 95,000  717,000 

Wyoming 36,000  506,000 

Colorado 172,000  921,000 

•January  1,  1913. 

144 


New  Mexico  56,000  891,000 

Arizona    34,000  778,000 

Utah 85,000  ,  352,000 

Nevada    20,000  433,000 

Idaho    102,000  340,000 

Washington    219,000  186,000 

Oregon ." 187,000  452,000 

California    510,000  1,454,000 

1.  Do  you  observe  any  relation  to  exist  between    the   distribution    of   milch   cows   and   the 
large  cities  of  the  Northeastern  States? 

2.  Do  you  observe  any  relation  to  exist:     (a)  Between  the  distribution  of  other  cattle  and 
native  grass  lands?     (b)  Between  other  cattle  and  the  corn  belt  region? 

Part  B.     Hogs. 

DIRECTIONS.     On  an  outline   map  of  the  United   States   show   the  distribution   of  hogs 
by  placing  a  dot  in  each  state  for  every  50,000  head  of  hogs. 

State  Hogs.* 

Maine 101,000 

New  Hampshire  52,000 

Vermont 107,000- 

Massachusetts  115,000 

Rhode  Island T . .      14,000 

Connecticut    58,000 

New  York   761,000 

New  Jersey   160,000 

Pennsylvania   1,130,000 

Delaware  58,000 

Maryland  335,000 

Virginia  836,000 

West  Virginia  356,000 

North  Carolina  1,335,000 

South  Carolina   765,000 

Georgia    , 1,888,000 

Florida  878,000 

Ohio  ; 3,399,000 

Indiana    3,709,000 

Illinois   4,315,000 

Michigan  1,313,000 

Wisconsin  2,030,000 

Minnesota 1,702,000 

Iowa 8,720,000 

Missouri 4,087,000 

North  Dakota  366,000 

South  Dakota   1,181,000 

Nebraska 3,798,000 

Kansas  2,611,000 

Kentucky    1,638,000 

Tennessee 1,495,000 

•J«nn»»T  1,  1913. 

145 


Alabama 1,456,000 

Mississippi    1,482,000 

Louisiana 1,412,000 

Texas  .- 2,493,000 

Oklahoma  1,325,000 

Arkansas  1,529,000 

Montana    153,000 

Wyoming    " 41,000 

Colorado  205,000 

New  Mexico   52,000 

Arizona   23,000 

Utah 81,000 

Nevada  ■ 32,000 

Idaho 233,000 

Washington    , 258,000 

Oregon    268,000 

California 822,000 

1.  What  relation   do  you   observe  to   exist  between  the  distribution  of  corn  and  the  dis- 
tribution of  hogs  in  the  United  States? 

2.  Why  is  the  distribution  of  hogs  in  the  United  States  not  as  general  as  the  distribution 
of  cattle? 


146 


EXERCISE  XLII. 

*  RETAIL  CUTS  OF  BEEF. 

DIRECTIONS.  1.  Make  a  careful  drawing  of  the  retail  cuts  of  beef  as  shown  by  the 
diagram  on  page  150.    Number  each  cut.    Also  give  a  key  to  the  numbering. 

2.  By  reference  to  the  table  of  cost  prices,  page  151,  determine  which  part  of  the  beef  is 
the  more  valuable,  the  fore  quarters  or  hind  quarters. 

3.  (a)  Which  is  the  most  valuable  cut  of  meat,  as  judged  from  retail  prices  given?  (b) 
Where  located?  (c)  Describe  the  width  of  back  and  depth  of  fleshing  of  an  animal  well  fitted 
to  carry  a  large  quantity  of  this  cut  of  meat. 

4.  Why  is  it  desirable  to  produce  beef  animals  with  short  necks  and  legs? 

5.  The  net  cost  of  lean  meat  present  in  any  of  the  cuts  may  be  taken  as  a  basis  of  com- 
parison for  steaks  and  roasts,  since  they  are  purchased  and  used  primarily  for  the  lean  they 
contain;  but  in  comparing  boiling,  stewing,  and  similar  roasts,  the  cost  of  lean  meat  and  fat 
combined  should  be  used  as  a  basis,  because  the  fat  is  more  completely  utilized  in  these  cuts. 
For  example,  meat  loaf,  hash,  hamburger,  and  corned  beef  are  well-known  ways  of  utilizing 
the  fat  and  lean  of  the  cheaper  cuts  of  beef.  Soup  bones  being  valued  for  flavoring  matter  as 
well  as  for  the  nutritive  substances  they  contain,  are  more  difficult  to  compare  with  other 
cuts  in  respect  to  relative  economy.  Since  the  various  soup  bones  differ  in  the  quantity  of  edible 
meat  and  in  the  per  cent  of  waste,  it  will  be  profitable  to  make  comparisons  between  them. 
Analysis  shows  that  the  cheaper  cuts  of  meat  are  as  valuable  as  the  higher  priced  cuts  from 
the  standpoint  of  protein  content  and  of  energy  produced.  This  statement  does  not,  however, 
take  into  consideration   tenderness,   or   the   relation   of  fatness  to  the  palatability  of  the  meat. 

(a)     If  you  are  buying  protein**  in  the  form  of  lean  meat,  what  cuts  are  most  economical? 

(b)     From  the  standpoint  of  protein  and  fat   (tissue-building  food  and  energy-producing  food) 
combined,  which  cuts  of  meat  are  the  cheapest? 

6.  (a)  Is  there  much  difference  in  the  price  per  pound  of  soup  bones  as  they  are  sold  on 
the  local  market?  (b)  When  the  proportions  of  bone,  lean  meat,  and  fat  are  considered,  is 
there  much  difference  in  their  value?  (c)  Which  soup  bones  are  the  cheapest  as  judged  from 
the  quantity  of  lean  meat  present?  (d)  As  judged  from  the  quantity  of  lean  meat  and  fat 
combined? 

7.  (a)  What  are  the  cheapest  meats  for  boiling  and  stewing,  when  judged  from  the 
standpoint  of  lean  meat  present?  (b)  When  judged  from  the  standpoint  of  lean  meat  and  fat 
combined? 

8.  Which  roasts  are  the  cheapest? 

9.  How  do  you  explain  that  the  steaks,  especially  those  from  the  hind  quarters,  are  so 
much  higher  in  price  than  other  cuts  of  meat,  even  though  their  food  value  is  about  the  same? 

10.  (a)  Between  what  cuts  is  there  the  greatest  range  in  nrice  of  lean  meat  present? 
(b)     Of  lean  and.  fat  combined? 

11.  Since  the  relative  food  values  of  the  various  cuts  of  meat  are  about  the  same,  which 
cuts,  cheap  or  high  priced,  are  the  more  economical  sources  of  both  lean  and  total  edible 
meat? 


*  Adapted  from  Illinois  bulletin  on  retail  cuts  of  beef. 
"  Protein  as  a  food  is  very  important  as  a  tissue  builder,    while    fat    is    more   important   as   a    source    of   bodily 
energy. 

149 


HIND  QUARTERS. 


Round 


Ta  1 

'/ 

7  \, 

T    n 

I 

iSy* 

£\<A 

I            'S 

nTcT< 

Fig.  86. 
Retail  cuts  of  beef 

Rump 

1.  Rump. 

Round:    rump  and  shank  off. 

2.  Round  steak,  first  cut. 
3-13.  Round  steak. 

14.  Round  steak,  last  cut. 

15.  Knuckle  soup  bone. 

16.  Pot  roast. 

Hind  Shank 

17.  18.  Soup  bones. 

19.        Hock   soup   bones. 


Loin 


1.  Butt-ends  sirloin  steak. 

2.  Wedge-bone  sirloin  steak. 
3-4.     Round-bone  sirloin  steak. 
5-6,     Double-bone  sirloin  steak. 

7.  Hip-bone  sirloin  steak. 

8.  Hip-bone  porterhouse  steak. 
9-15.  Regular  porterhouse  steak 

16-18.  Club  steaks. 


Flank 


1.  Flank  steak. 

2.  Stew. 

FORE  QUARTERS. 


Rib 


1. 

2. 
3. 

4. 

11th  and  12th  rib  roast 
9th  and  10th  rib  roast. 
7th  and  8th  rib  roast. 
6th  rib  roast. 

Chuck 

1. 

2-9. 
10-13 
14. 
15. 

5th  rib  roast. 
Chuck  steaks. 
Pot  roasts. 
Clod. 
Neck. 

Plate 

1. 
2. 
3-4. 

Brisket. 
Navel. 
Rib  ends. 

Fore  Shank 

1. 
2-4. 

Stew. 
Soup  bones. 

150 


COST  OF  LEAN  AND  OF  TOTAL  MEAT  IN    VARIOUS    RETAIL    CUTS    AT    ABOUT 

RETAIL  MARKET  PRICES. 


Retail  Cuts. 


Steaks 

Porterhouse,  hip  bone..  . 

Porterhouse,    regular    .. 

Club  steak   

Sirloin,  butt-end   

Sirloin,  round-bone    .... 

Sirloin,  double-bone    . .  . 

Sirloin,  hip-bone   

Flank   steak    

Round,  first  cut 

Round,  middle   cut 

Round,  last  cut 

Chuck,  first  cut 

Chuck,  last  cut 

Roasts 

Prime  ribs,  first  cut 

Prime   ribs,   last   cut 

Chuck,  fifth  rib 

Rump    

Boiling  and  Stewing  Pieces 

Round   pot   roast 

Shoulder  clod 

Shoulder  pot  roast 

Rib  ends   

Brisket    

Navel    

Flank  stew   

Fore   shank  stew 

Neck  

Soup  Bones 

Hind  shank,  middle  cut. 

Hind  shank,  hock 

Fore  shank,  middle  cut. 

Fore   shank,   end 


Diagram 

Number. 

See   Fig.  86. 


8 

10 
18 
1 
3 
5 
7 
1 
2 
6 
14 
2 
9 

1 
4 

1 

1 

16 

14 

11 

3 

1 
2 
2 
1 
IS 

18 

19 

2 

4 


Retail  price 
per  lb.  of  cut. 
Lean,  fat  and 
bone  com- 
bined. 


$0.25 
.25 
.20 
.20 
.20 
.20 
.20 
.16 
.15 
.15 
.15 
.12 
.12 

.26 
.16 
.15 
.12 

.10 
.10 
.10 
.08 
.08 
.07 
.07 
.07 
.06 

.05 
.05 
.05 
.05 


Cost  per   lb. 

of  only  the 

lean  meat  in 

cut. 


$0.39 
.40 
.32 
.25 
.28 
.29 
.32 
.19 
.17 
.17 
.19 
.18 
.16 

.40 
26 
.23 
.19 

.12 
.12 
.14 
.16 
.15 
.13 
.11 
.08 
.08 

.07 
.62 
.12 
.29 


Cost   per   lb. 

of  only  the 
lean  and  fat 

meat  com- 
bined in  cut. 


$0.29 
.27 
.23 
.21 
.21 
.23 
.24 
.16 
.15 
.16 
.16 
.14 
.13 

.23 
.19 
.17 
.13 

.10 
.10 
.12 
.09 
.09 
.08 
.07 
.07 
07 

.06 
.26 
.09 
.30 


151 


EXERCISE  XLIII. 
*SCORIN&  BEEF  CATTLE. 

Ellis  Rail,  Professor  of  Agriculture,  State  School  of  Agriculture,  Curtis,   Nebraska. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  Three  dozen  score  cards  for  beef  cattle — fat  class.  Two  or 
three  fat   beef  cattle  suitable  for  scoring. 

DIRECTIONS.  First  learn  where  the  points  mentioned  in  the  score  card  for  beef  cattle 
are  located  on  the  animal.  Second,  read  the  explanation  and  directions  accompanying  the  score 
card  for  beef  cattle.  As  you  read  the  explanation  and  directions  it  will  be  well  to  make  a 
casual  study  of  a  fat  beef  animal.     Third,  score  such  animals  as  are  provided  for  this  study. 

Explanation   and   Directions   Accompanying  the  Score  Card  for  Beef  Cattle. — Fat  Class. 

The  Demand  of  the  Butcher.  Since  the  butcher  is  the  man  who  is  the  ultimate  judge  of 
the  animal  to  be  killed  for  beef,  it  follows  that  his  ideas  of  value  in  the  animal  mast  be 
approximated  by  the  producer,  so  long  as  the  butcher's  demand  does  not  interfere  with  the 
economy  of  production. 

The  steer  that  most  fully  meets  the  requirements  of  the  butcher  and  packer  is  the  one 
that  carries  not  only  a  large  amount  of  meat  in  proportion-to  the  total  live  weight  but  .has  the 
meat  so  placed  on  the  body  that  a  comparatively  large  percentage  of  it  is  in  the  most  valuable 
parts  of  the  carcass,  namely,  the  ribs,  back,  loin  and  hind  quarters.  To  suit  the  butcher,  then, 
the  animal  must  have  proper  conformation,  quality  and  condition. 

Conformation.  Conformation  has  to  do  with  the  shape  or  form  of  the  animal.  A  good 
killing  steer  is  low  set,  blocky,  deep  and  wide,  with  a  comparatively  small  head  and  neck, 
and  short  refined  legs.  The  fore  quarters  and  chest  should  be  strong,  but  not  wider  than 
the  animal  elsewhere.  The  ribs,  back  and  loin  should  be  especially  wide  and  thick,  while 
width,  depth,  length  and  fullness  of  the  hind  quarters  throughout  are  essential.  With  this  form 
must  go  compactness  and  smoothness,  with  comparatively  light  development  of  the  paunch,  so 
that  the  dressing  waste  is  reduced  to  the  minimum.  The  essential  points  to  keep  in  mind  in 
regard  to  conformation  are  the  full  development  of  those  parts  which  yield  the  high  priced 
cuts,  and  the  minimum  development  of  those  parts  which  yield  the  cheaper  cuts.  Symmetry 
and  balance  of  form,  or  reasonable  proportion  must  not,  however,  be  sacrificed. 

Quality.  Quality  in  a  fat  animal  refers  to  two  points,  the  fineness  of  tissues  in  the  edible 
portions  of  the  carcass,  and  the  physical  condition  of  the  fat  and  muscle  tissues  which  cover 
the  body.  The  body  covering  must  be  firm,  elastic  and  pliable,  but  not  soft  and  flabby,  or 
harsh  and  hard.  Quality,  then,  really  refers  to  those  external  indications  which  suggest  to 
us  whether  or  not  the  meat  in  the  dressed  carcass  will  be  of  the  highest  grade  and  quality. 

The  external  indications  of  quality  are  as  follows:  fine,  clean,  hard  bone;  soft,  pliable 
skin;  soft  hair;  lack  of  coarseness  at  the  shoulders,  knee  joints,  hock  joints,  hips,  tail-head, 
head  and  horns.  A  smooth,  even,  firm  character  of  flesh  and  covering  throughout  is  like- 
wise indicative  of  quality.  Rolls  of  fat  on  the  ribs,  lumps  about  the  tail-head,  too  flabby 
and  soft  a  character  of  the  covering  in  any  region  are  to  be  avoided  or  severely  criticised. 

Condition.  Condition  means  the  degree  of  fatness  that  the  animal  possesses.  Thin  condi- 
tion means  having  little  fat  in  the  body  tissues.  Ripeness  or  finished  condition  means  that  the 
body  is  carrying  the  maximum  percentage  of  fat  cells  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  lean 
tissue.  Ripeness  of  condition  is  necessary  to  secure  a  high  percent  of  dressed  meat  of  good 
flavor  and  quality.  To  judge  condition,  examine  the  animal  carefully  with  the  hand  about 
the  shoulders,  ribs,  spine  and  hind  quarters,  for  fullness  and  thickness  of  the  muscle  and  fat 

*  See    Introduction    to    Corn    Score    Card,    Exercise    X  XIII. 

152 


covering  of  these  regions.  The  finished  or  ripe  condition  of  the  steer  is  shown  not  only  by 
the  depth  of  covering- over  all  the  regions  mentioned,  but  by  the  fullness  of  the  loose  skin  at 
the  tongue  root,  the  dewlap,  and  the  flank.  If  these  skin-pockets  arc  well  filled  out  it  means 
that  the  animal  is  well  finished.  The  condition  of  the  animal  is  one  of  the  most  important 
points  to  the  butcher. 

Making  a  Detailed  Examination — Method  of  Procedure. 

In  examining  a  fat  animal,  the  method  used  should  be  one  that  will  insure  thoroughness 
and  completeness  of  inspection  of  all  parts.  To  this  end  a  systematic  method  is  indispensable. 
Some  such  method  should  be  determined  upon  and  used  so  continuously  that  it  eventually  be- 
comes a  fixed  habit.    The  following  method  will  be  found  satisfactory: 

First,  observe  the  animal  from  in  front,  taking  care  to  be  far  enough  away  that  the  true 
proportion  of  parts  is  plain.  Now  notice  the  head  for  length,  breadth,  shape  and  freedom  from 
undesirable  attributes,  recalling  to  mind  the  description  of  the  points  of  the  head  mentioned 
in  the  score  card.  Then  observe  the  general  width  displayed  along  the  top  of  the  animal. 
Notice  especially  shoulder  conformation,  "low-setness,"  depth  and  width  of  chest,  character  of 
dewlap,  set  and  character  of  the  front  legs,  and  finally  the  symmetry  and  blending  of  the  front 
of  the  animal  as  a  whole. 

Remaining  in  front  of  the  animal,  move  a  little  to  one  side  and  observe  all  parts  carefully 
frorh  the  side  view  thus  presented.  Note  the  levelness  of  lines,  depth  of  body,  the  "low-set- 
ness," the  compactness,  the  freedom  from  rough  hips,  and  other  coarse  features.  Notice  espe- 
cially the  width  and  fullness  of  the  crops  and  fore  flank,  the  spring  of  rib,  the  width  of  back 
and  loin,  the  smoothness  of  hips,  and  the  levelness,  width  and  fullness  of  the  rump.  Do  not 
overlook  the  character  of  the  shoulders.  All  these  parts  should  approximate  in  form  and  char- 
acter the  things  suggested  by  the  score  card — breadth  and  depth  of  body,  fullness  and  depth 
of  muscle  covering,  and  smoothness  as  well  as  compactness  of  conformation.  Passing  slowly 
to  a  full  side  view,  verify  your  former  observations,  taking  care  that  nothing  has  been  over- 
looked or  misinterpreted. 

Now  step  to  the  rear  of  the  animal,  and  at  least  two  paces  from  it.  Observe  carefully 
the  width  and  smoothness  of  shoulders;  the  width,  levelness  and  evenness  of  the  entire  top- 
line.  Notice  the  width,  thickness  and  depth  of  rump  and  thighs.  Also  observe  the  lowness 
and  fullness  of  the  twist. 

In  making  this  careful  survey  of  the  animal  from  the  front,  side  and  rear,  not  only  must 
the  character  of  each  individual  point  be  noted,  but  the  symmetry  and  proportion  of  the  parts 
must  be  kept  in  mind.  The  relative  amount  of  the  cheaper  parts  of  the  carcass  must  be  com- 
pared with  the  higher  priced  parts,  and  the  factors  of  paunchmess,  size  of  bone,  coarseness  of 
head,  amount  of  loose  skin,  etc.,  must  be  noted  in  order  to  make  a  careful  estimate  of  how 
these  will  affect  the  dressing  percentage. 

After  completing  the  inspection  from  the  rear,  pass  on  around  to  the  other  side  of  the 
animal  and  observe  from  that  side  all  points  previously  studied  from  the  opposite  side.  Pass- 
ing slowly  to  the  front,  examine  the  animal  at  the  shoulder.  With  the  hand,  carefully  feel  the 
top  and  side  of  the  shoulder  for  depth  and  firmness  of  covering.  Feel  the  tongue  root  and 
dewlap  to  ascertain  the  amount  of  fat.  Then  handle  carefully  the  covering  of  the  crops,  the 
lower  ribs,  the  back  and  loin.  Ascertain  the  depth  of  loin  by  noting  it  at  the  side  and  pushing 
the  skin  in  a  little  at  its  lower  edge.  Handle  also  the  filling  of  the  rump  and  flank.  Feel  the 
thighs  for  firmness  and  character  of  their  fleshy  covering.  In  making  this  examination  with 
the  hand,  note  carefully  the  pliability  ind  softness  of  the  hide  and  hair,  as  well  as  the  firmness 
and  elasticity  of  the  fleshy  covering.  These  points  are  important  in  judging  quality.  Criticise 
unevenness  of  covering  and  softness  about  the  crops,  loin  or  tail-head.  Watch  carefully  for 
rolls  of  fat  on  the  ribs,  edges  of  the  loin,  and  about  the  rump  and  tail-head. 

153 


Fig.  87.     Points  of  the  beef  animal. 


1. 

Muzzle 

2. 

Eye 

3. 

Face 

4. 

Forehead 

5. 

Ears 

6. 

Neck 

7. 

Shoulder    vein 

8. 

Shoulder 

9. 

Brisket 

10. 

Jaw 

11. 

Breast 

12. 

Dewlap  or  heavy   skin 

on   neck 

13. 

Arm 

14. 

Shin 

15. 

Legs 

16. 

Chest 

17. 

Fore  flanks 

18. 

Crops 

19. 

Ribs 

20. 

Back 

21. 

Loin 

22. 

Hips  or  hooks 

23. 

Hind  flank 

24. 

Rump 

25. 

Tail-head 

26. 

Pin    bones 

27. 

Thigh 

28. 

Twist 

29. 

Hocks 

30. 

Shanks 

31. 

Tail 

Fig.   88. 
Location  of  points  on  a  beef  animal. 


154 


•SCORE   CARD   FOR   BEEF   CATTLE.— FAT  CLASS. 


Date. 


Animal  No.  1 


No.  2 


No.  3 


Scale  of  Points  for  Beef  Cattle— Fat  Class 

Perltcl 
Score 

Student'* 
Score 

Corrected 

Student's 
Score 

Corrected 

Student  s 
Score 

Corrected 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE: 

10 
10 
10 
!0 

1 

1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

2 

2 
1 

1 

2 

4 
8 
10 
8 
2 

2 

2 
1 
4 
2 
2 

POINTS   DEFICIENT. 

Form,  straight  top  line  and  underline;  deep, 

Quality,    firm    handling;    hair    fine;    pliable 

Condition,  deep,  even  covering  of  firm  flesh, 

HEAD  AND  NECK: 

Muzzle,   broad;    mouth   large;    jaws   wide; 

* 

Horns,  fine  texture,  oval,  medium  size 

. 

FOREQUARTERS: 

Shoulder  Vein,  full 

.Shoulders,  covered  with  flesh,  compact  on 

* 

Dewlap,  skin  not  too  loose  and  drooping.. . 
Legs,  straight,  short;  arm  full;  shank  fine, 

BODY: 

Chest,   full,   deep,   wide;  girth  large;   crops 
full   

Ribs,  long,  arched,  thickly  fleshed.. 

Back,  broad,  straight,  smooth,  even 

Loin,  thick,  broad 

Flank,  full,  even  with  underline 

HINDQUARTERS: 

Hips,  smoothly  covered;   distance  apart  in 
proportion  with  other  parts 

- 

Rump,  long,  wide,  even;    tail-head  smooth, 

Pin  Bones,  not  prominent,  far  apart 

• 

Legs,  straight,  short;  shank  fine,  smooth... 

Total    

100 

Estimated  Weights  No.  1 No.  2 No.   3 . . . 

Correct  Weights        No.  1 No.  2 No.   3 . . . 

Name    Grade. 

•Score   card   tiled   by   the   Nebraska   Agricultural    Collect. 


155 


EXERCISE  XLIV. 
♦JUDGING  BEEF  CATTLE. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.      Four  beef  animals  of  as  near  the  same  age  and  condition  as  are 

accessible  for  study.  ' 

INTRODUCTION.  The  use  of  the  score  card,  as  you  have  observed  in  the  study  of 
corn,  is  the  first  step  toward  judging.  In  the  case  of  fat  cattle  it  has  given  you  a  systematic 
order  of  examination,  and  shown  something  of  the  relative  value  placed  upon  various  points. 
The  use  of  the  score  card  should  have  improved  your  ideal  of  fat  cattle,  given  you  greater 
ability  to  sec  defects  as  well  as  points  of  merit,  and  furnished  you  with  some  means  of  sup- 
porting with  reason,  your  opinion  regarding  an  animal. 

When  four  animals  are  brought  before  you  to  be  place*d  relative  to  one  another  you  will 
have  little  difficulty  in  picking  out  defects  or  points  of  merit.  The  difficulty  is  met  in  attempt- 
ing to  balance  correctly,  defects  or  points  of  merit  of  one  kind  in  one  animal  against  defects  or 
points  of  merit  of  another  kind  in  another  animal.  It  is  only  through  practice  that  one  can 
learn  to  examine  animals  thoroughly  and  balance  defects  and  points  of  merit. 

DIRECTIONS.  Study  the  cattle  carefully,  place  them  relative  to  one  another,  and  then 
record  data  as  suggested  by  the  following  form: 


Student's 

Correct 

Beef  Animal 

Placing 

Estimate  of 
Weight 

Placing 

Weight    . 

1 

Reasons  for  placing  beef  animal  No first. 


•As  here  used,  the 
out  the  use  of  the  score 
buyer. 


term  judging  refers  to  the  act  of  placing  fat  cattle  in  the  order  of  their  excellence  with- 
card.     This  form  of  judging  is  used    almost    exclusively    by    the    show    judge,    feeder    and 


156 


Reasons  for  placing  beef  animal  No second. 

> 


Reasons  for  placing  beef  animal  No third. 


Reasons  for  placing  beef  animal  No fourth. 


15/ 


EXERCISE  XLV. 
MILK. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  A  glass  or  beaker  of  whole  milk  which  has  stood  over  night ;  two 
rulers;  compound  microscope;  olive  oil;  twelve  test  tubes;  lactometer;  one  quart  of  skimmed  milk;  one  quart  of 
whole  milk;  small  hand  Babcock  tester  and  glassware  toaccompany  the  same;  sulphuric  acid,  1.8  specific  gravity; 
hot  water;  acetic  acid;  filter  paper;  12  evaporating  dishes;  cane  sugar;  nitric  acid;  ammonia;  SO  cc  beaker; 
two   200   cc.    beakers;     thermometers;     box    of   Lactone   tablets    secured    locally. 


Part  A.     Physical  Properties. 

1.  On  the  supply  table  you  will  find  some  milk  in  beakers  which  has  stood  over  night, 
(a)  Measure  the  thickness  of  the  two  layers  which  have  formed,  (b)  The  thickness  of  the 
cream  is  about  what  percent  of  the  total  depth  of  the  liquid  in  the  beaker? 

2.  Examine  a  sample  of  whole  milk  by  aid  of  a  compound  microscope,  (a)  Make  a 
careful  drawing  of  a  small  section  of  the  field,  (b)  What  is  the  nature  of  the  small  globular 
bodies  distributed  throughout  the  liquid?  (c)  Observe  a  sample  of  cream  under  the  micro- 
scope.    Infer  what  has  taken  place  in  the  whole  milk  to  produce  the  change  observed. 

3.  Add  a  drop  or  two  of  olive  oil  to  a  test  tube  half  filled  with  water.  Mix  the  water 
and  olive  oil  by  vigorous  shaking,  (a)  After  thoroughly  mixing  the  two  liquids,  hold  the  tube 
in  a  good  light  and  observe  the  change  that  takes  place,  (b)  What  proof  is  there  that  oil  is 
lighter  than  water?  (c)  Explain  why  cream  rises  to  the  surface  of  milk  when  allowed  to 
stand  in  a  quiet  place.  Allowing  milk  to  stand  in  a  quiet  place  is  an  old  and  common  method 
of  separating  cream  from  milk.  Since  the  liquids  separate  due  to  their  difference  in  weight 
this  method  may  be  called  the  gravity  method. 

4.  (Classroom  experiment.)  By  use  of  a  lactometer,  determine  the  comparative  weights 
of  water,  skimmed  milk,  and  whole  milk,  (a)  What  kind  of  liquid,  heavy  or  light,  exerts  the 
greater  buoyant  force  (upward  force)  on  any  object  submerged  in  it?  (b)  Make  a  record  of 
the  relative  weights  of  the  three  liquids  as  shown  by  the  lactometer. 

5.  (Classroom  experiment.)  Fill  one  of  the  test  bottles  of  the  centrifugal  machine  (Bab- 
cock tester)  with  skimmed  milk,  the  ether  with  whole  milk.  The  necks  of  the  bottles  should 
be  about  J4  full.  Place  the  bottles  in  tne  machine  and  whirl  them  for  about  three  minutes, 
(a)  Remove  the  bottles  and  observe  any  cream  which  has  been  found  to  collect  in  the  nar- 
row necks  of  the  bottles.  Compare  the  amounts  of  cream  collected,  (b)  Explain  how  cen- 
trifugal force  causes  cream  to  collect  in  the  narrow  necks  of  the  bottles,  (c)  Compare  the 
gravity  method  of  separating  cream  with  the  centrifugal  method,  as  to  time  required  and 
amount  of  cream  obtained,  (d)  Which  method  of  separating  cream  is  made  use  of  in  the 
cream  separator?  (e)  From  your  observation  and  study  thus  far,  how  would  you  explain  what 
occurs  in  separating  milk  in  an  ordinary  separator? 


1M 


Part  B.     Composition.* 

6.  (Classroom  experiment.)  The  per  cent  of  fat  present  in  milk  may  readily  be  determ- 
ined by  the  Babcock  test.  The  principle  of  this  test  depends  upon  the  fact  that  sulphuric  acid 
breaks  up  the  solids  of  milk,  other  than  fat.  The  action  of  sulphuric  acid  thus  sets  the  fat  free, 
leaving  it  in  such  a  condition  that  it  can  readily  be  separated  by  centrifugal  force  and  col- 
lected in  the  neck  of  a  bottle,  so  graduated  as  to  show  by  direct  reading  the  per  cent  of  fat 
present.  In  taking  a  sample  of  milk,  make  sure  that  k  is  representative  of  the  entire  lot.  The 
sample  may  be  measured  with  a  milk  pipette  which  holds  17.&  cc.  when  filled  to  the  mark  on 
the  stem.  After  filling  the  pipette,  place  the  point  of  it  in  the  mouth  of  the  test  bottle,  holding 
both  the  test  bottle  and  the  pipette  in  a  slightly  inclined  position.  To  the  measured  quantity 
of  milk  in  the  test  bottle  add  17.5  cc.  of  sulphuric  acid  having  a  specific  gravity  of  at  least  1.8. 
The  test  bottle  should  be  held  in  an  inclined  position  while  pouring  in  the  acid.  This  will 
avoid  having  the  acid  drop  through  the  body  of  the  milk  in  the  the  bottle.  By  observ- 
ing this  precaution  you  will  not  char  the  milk  or  spill  the  acid.  If  the  acid  has  been  prop- 
erly added  there  will  be  distinct  layers  of  acid  and  milk  in  the  test  bottle,  without  any  black 
layer  of  partially  mixed  acid  and  milk  between  them.  Now  mix  the  acid  and  milk  by  giving 
the  test  bottle  a  combined  rotary  and  shaking  motion.  Do  this  carefully,  so  that  no  curd  will 
get  into  the  neck  of  the  bottle.  The  shaking  should  be  continued  until  all  particles  or  clots 
of  curd  are  entirely  dissolved.  The  test  bottles  with  the  milk  and  acid  properly  mixed  may 
now  be  placed  in  the  tester  or  centrifugal  machine.  The  bottles  should  be  arranged  in  pairs 
at  opposite  sides  of  the  center,  so  that  they  will  balance  when  rotating.  To  produce  a  com- 
plete separation  of  the  fat.  it  will  be  necessary  to  whirl  the  bottles  for  five  minutes.  One 
hundred  revolutions  of  the  crank  per  minute  will  run  the  small  "Hand  Tester"  at  about  the 
right  speed.  After  whirling  the  bottles  for  five  minutes,  allow  machine  gradually  to  slow 
down  until  it  comes  to  rest.  Hot  water  is  now  added  to  the  contents  of  the  bottles  in  order 
to  bring  the  fat  up  into  the  graduated  position  of  the  necks  where  it  can  readily  be  measured. 
After  adding  hot  water,  whirl  the  bottles  for  one  minute.  If  the  test  is  properly  made,  there 
will  be  a  clearly  defined  column  of  fat  in  the  necks  of  the  bottles.  If  the  reading  is  indistinct 
on  account  of  cloudiness  of  the  fat,  add  a  little  hot  water  and  whirl  again.  To  read  the  per 
cent  of  fat,  hold  the  bottle  up  with  the  fat  at  a  level  with  the  eye  and  read  the  graduations 
at  each  end  of  the  column  of  fat.     Each  small  division  represents  two-tenths  of  one  per  cent 

of  fat.     Each  of  the  large  spaces,  numbered  1,  2,  3,  10,  represent  one  per  cent  of  fat. 

The  difference  between  the  readings  indicates  the  percent  of  fat  present  in  the  milk.  The  per 
cent  of  fat  can  also  be  read  by  counting  .directly  the  number  of  spaces  the  column  of  fat 
covers. 


(a)  Record  the  per  cent  of  fat  present   in  the  samples  of  milk  tested. 

(b)  How  many  pounds  of  fat  would  be  present  in  100  pounds  of  such  milk  as  you  tested? 

(c)  Make  a  brief  summary  of  the  steps  necessary  in  performing  the  test  for  fat  present 
in  whole  milk. 


Milk  Use  in  the  Body. 

1.  Water     87%     For  water  supply. 

2.  Solids     13% 

1*     Fat     4%     For  heat   and  fat. 

21     Solid,   not    fat 9% 

1»     Sugar     5%    For  heat   and  fat. 

2'     Protein     3.4%     For  muscle,  tendon,  hair.   etc. 

1*     Casein     -....3.0% 

2*     Albumen     0.4% 

3'     Aih    0.6%     For  bone. 


159 


7.  Milk  sugar,  or  lactose,  ffltms  more  than  one-third  of  the  solids  of  milk  and  more  than 
one-half  of  the  solids  of  separator  skim  milk.  To  prepare  miik  sugar  in  the  laboratory,  coagu- 
late about  50  cc.  of  skim  milk  with  a  few  drops  of  acetic  acid.  After  coagulating  the  milk, 
strain  out  the  curd,  (largely  casein)  and  heat  the  remaining  liquid  to  the  boiling  point.  (Save 
a  little  of  the  curd  for  experiment  8.)  Boiling  will  precipitate  the  albumen,  (a)  Albumen 
and  casein  together  form  what?  See  foot  note  on  page  159.  (b)  After  the  albumen  has  set- 
tled, pour  off  the  clear  liquid,  or  filter  it  and  then  boil  to  dryness  in  an  evaporating  dish. 
Describe  the  appearance  of  the  material  left  in  the  dish,  (c)  Compare  its  taste  with  that  of 
cane  sugar — ordina/y  sugar,  (d)  What  do  you  remove  when  you  skim  milk?  (e)  What  do 
you  remove  when  you  make  cheese  out  of  skim  milk?    What  is  left  in  the  whey? 

8.  (a)  Test  a  little  curd  of  milk  for  protein  by  use  of  nitric  acid  and  ammonia,  as  in 
previous  work.  Record  the  results  of  the  test,  (b)  What  other  form  of  protein  is  present  in 
milk? 


Part  C.     Sterilization,  Pasteurization,  and  the  Making  of  "Artificial  Butter   Milk." 

9.  (Classroom  experiment.)  Boil  about  100  cubic  centimeters  of  milk  in  a  beaker  for 
twenty  minutes.  The  boiling  temperature  is  about  212°  F.  or  100°  C.  (a)  Describe  the  appearance 
and  taste  of  the  milk  after  boiling,  (b)  Let  it  stand  for  a  day  in  a  cool  place  and  observe 
whether  or  not  the  cream  rises  as  it  does  on  milk  not  boiled,  (c)  Does  sterilized  milk  sour 
as  quickly  as  milk  not  sterilized?     Explain. 

10.  Fill  a  50  cc.  beaker  about  Yi  full  of  milk.  Set  it  in  a  200  cc.  beaker  or  a  tin  cup  nearly 
full  of  water.  Heat  the  water  until  the  temperature  of  the  milk  in  the  small  beaker  becomes 
about  155°  F.  or  about  68°  C.  (a)  Observe  the  appearance  and  taste  of  the  milk  after  being 
heated  to  this  temperature,  (b)  Let  it  stand  for  a  day  in  a  cool  place  and  observe  whether  or 
not  cream  rises  on  this  milk  as  it  does  on  milk  not  heated,  (c)  This  process  of  treating  milk 
is  called  pasteurization.  How  did  the  name  pasteurization  come  to  be  applied  to  this  process 
of  treating  milk?  For  reference,  consult  encyclopaedia,  (d)  In  what  respect  is  pasteurized 
milk  not  as  good  as  sterilized  milk?  (e)  Wherein  does  it  have  an  advantage  over  sterilized 
milk? 

11.  Make  a  little  "artificial  buttermilk"  by  use  of  Lactone  tablets  (cultivated  bacteria). 
Follow  as  far  as  possible  the  directions  given  in  the  printed  matter  which  accompanies  the  box 
of  tablets,  (a)  What  do  the  directions  say  concerning  the  temperature  at  which  these  bac- 
teria do  their  best  work?  (b)  What  is  said  concerning  the  length  of  time  during  which  these 
bacteria  may  be  kept?  (c)  What  do  you  infer  concerning  the  length  of  life  of  the  bacteria 
present  in  these  tablets? 


160 


EXERCISE  XLVI. 

SCORING  DAIRY  COWS. 

Ellis   Rail,  Professor  of  Agriculture,   State   School  of  Agriculture,  Curtis,  Nebraska. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  Three  dozen  score  cards  for  dairy  cows ;  two  or  three  cows 
3f  good  dairy   type. 

DIRECTIONS.  First  learn  where  the  points  mentioned  in  the  score  card  for  dairy  cows 
are  located  on  the  animal.  Second,  read  the  explanation  and  directions  accompanying  the 
score  card  for  dairy  cows.  As  you  read  the  explanation  and  directions  it  will  be  well  to  make 
a  casual  study  of  a  good  dairy  cow.     Third,  score  such  cows  as  are  provided  for  this  study. 

EXPLANATION  AND  DIRECTIONS  ACCOMPANYING    THE    SCORE    CARD    FOR 

DAIRY  COWS. 

Detailed  Examination — Method  of  Procedure. 

As  in  the  case  of  beef  cattle,  begin  judging  from  a  position  in  front  of  the  cow.  Observe 
the  muzzle  for  breadth  and  strength.  Excellence  in  these  points  indicates  good  feeding 
capacity.  The  jaw  should  be  observed  for  strength  of  bone  and  muscling.  Excellence  here 
indicates  good  powers  of  mastication.  The  nostrils  should  be  large  and  open.  Notice  the  face 
for  leanness  of  character  and  the  display  of  facial  veins;  the  eyes  should  be  large,  prominent, 
alert,  and  mild.  These  things  indicate  dairy  temperament.  Next  observe  the  forehead  for 
width  and  strength,  but  criticise  too  full  a  forehead  as  indicating  coarseness.  Examine  the 
ears.  They  should  be  of  medium  size,  fine  in  textural  quality  and  well  fringed  with  rather 
long,  soft  hair. 

Now,  stepping  to  the  side  of  the  animal,  but  still  well  forward,  critically  examine  her  neck 
and  forequarters.  The  neck  should  be  slender,  neat,  and  thin,  with  little  looseness  of  dewlap 
at  the  base.  Examine  the  withers  with  both  the  eye  and  the  hand.  The  withers  should  be 
narrow  and  sharply  defined.  Coarseness  in  this  region  is  indicated  by  openness,  roughness,  or 
a  tendency  to  meatiness.  The  shoulders  should  be  light  and  sloping,  fitting  neatly  at  the 
top,  but  far  enough  apart  below  to  give  plenty  of  room  for  a  broad,  strong  chest  develop- 
ment. The  fore  legs  should  be  fine  in  bone  and  clean  in  appearance.  They  should  stand 
squarely  under  the  corners  of  the  body  with  distance  enough  between  to  give  good  chest  room. 
Meatiness  or  thickness  in  any  portion  of  the  neck,  shoulders,  or  legs,  is  objectionable,  as  it 
indicates  a  lack  of  true  dairy  type.  Now,  step  back  two  or  three  steps  and  observe  the  body 
itself.  Notice  the  chest.  It  should  be  deep  and  have  a  broad  floor.  The  heart  girth  should 
be  large.  These  things  indicate  roominess  and  capacity  for  the  vital  organs.  From  the  same 
position  one  can  well  observe  the  straightness  of  the  back  and  the  roominess  and  capacity 
of  the  barrel.  The  back  should  be  straight  and  strong,  with  ribs  that  are  broad,  far  apart, 
long,  and  wide  spread.  Ribs  of  this  description  give  the  capacious  middle  so  necessary  for 
heavy  production  of  milk.  Passing  the  hand  carefully  along  the  spinal  column,  examine  the 
vertebrae.  They  should  be  bare  and  prominent.  In  fact,  the  whole  region  of  the  back,  ribs 
and  loin  should  show  spareness  of  fleshing.  Finally  from  the  side  view  notice  the  depth  of 
flank,  the  levelness  of  the  rump,  and  the  setting  of  the  tail-head.  The  tail-head  should  be 
level  and  not  drooping.  From  the  side  view  the  rear  of  the  thighs  should  be  incurving,  rather 
than  showing  a  tendency  to  bulge  with  flesh. 

Step  now  to  the  rear  and  view  the  animal  from  that  quarter.  The  withers  should  be  angu- 
lar, the  loin  broad  and  strong,  the  hips  wide  apart  and  prominent.  The  tail  should  be  neat  and 
free  from  coarseness  at  the  base.  It  should  taper  gradually  to  a  fine,  well  developed  switch. 
The  rump  should  be  level  and  well  cleft  between  the  hips  and  pin  bones.  The  latter  should 
be  level  with  the  hip  bones  and  far  apart.  As  seen  from  the  rear,  the  thighs  should  be  thin, 
incurving  from  the  sides,  and  wide  apart.  The  hind  legs  should  be  fine  boned,  straight,  well 
apart,  and  of  good  qualtiy.     Closeness  at  the  hocks  is  objectionable,  as  it  limits  udder  space. 

16''. 


Since  the  development  of  the  mammary  system  of  the  dairy  cow  is  an  important  index 
to  her  milk  producing  capacity,  the  examination  of  the  mammary  organs  must  be  careful  and 
complete.  Notice  carefully  the  size  and  shape  of  udder,  both  from  the  rear  a.nd  side  view. 
Great  width  and  length  of  udder  indicate  large  capacity.  To  be  long,  the  udder  must  attach 
high  behind  and  extend  well  forward.  It  should  not  hang  too  low.  The  floor,  or  sole,  should 
be  level,  and  the  four  quarters  should  be  uniformly  developed  and  well  balanced.  Now  ex- 
amine the  udder  with  the  hand  to  note  if  it  be  flexible  and  free  from  meatiness.  It  should  be 
soft  and  pliable,  and  indicate  a  tendency  to  fold  closely  into  small  space  when  empty.  The  skin 
should  be  very  soft  and  velvety.  Examine  carefully  each  quarter  to  see  that  none  is  hard, 
caked,  or  spoiled.  Try  each  teat  to  see  that  it  milks  readily  and  naturally.  Note  the  size  of 
the  teats  and  their  placing.  In  order  to  be  easily  manipulated,  they  must  be  of  convenient 
size,  hang  directly  downward,  and  not  be  too  close  together  or  far  apart.  Udders  are  often 
narrow,  funnel-shaped,  or  lacking  in  forward  development.  Observe  that  running  forward  from 
the  udder  along  the  abdomen  are  large  veins  which  carry  the  blood  from  the  udder  to  the  heart. 
These  veins  are  of  extreme  importance  as  they  indicate  the  flow  of  blood  through  the  udder. 
The  amount  of  milk  the  udder  can  secrete  depends  largely  on  the  blood  supply.  These  veins 
should  be  large,  long,  and  tortuous.  Observe  that  the  "milk  veins"  pass  through  the  body  wall 
at  openings  well  forward  on  the  abdomen.  These  openings  are  called  "milk  wells."  They 
should  be  large  and  numerous.  By  following  along  the  vein  with  the  fingers,  the  openings  can 
be  found  and  their  size  noted. 

Having  now  completed  a  detailed  examination  of  the  cow,  you  should  be  in  position  to 
judge  her  quality.  What  you  have  learned  of  the  softness  and  pliability  of  coat,  the  refinement 
of  head,  neck  and  limbs,  and  the  general  freedom  from  coarseness  should  allow  you  to  judge 
quite  accurately  of  this  point.  If  you  are  not  clear  as  to  the  quality  of  the  animal  re-examine 
her,  with  this  idea  in  mind. 

Health  and  vigor  of  dairy  cattle  are  of  the  utmost  importance.  A  healthy,  vigorous 
dairy  cow  has  normal  secretions,  soft  oily  hair,  pliable  skin,  and  an  alert  appearance.  Though 
"of  nervous  temperament,  a  good  dairy  cow  is  docile.  Docility  can  be  judged  largely  by  the 
manner  in  which  the  animal  behaves  during  examination.  Finally  the  general  appearance  of 
the  cow  should  be  studied  from  various  points  of  view.  The  relation  of  parts  to  each  other 
should   be   noted   and   the  whole   animal   given  a  final  careful  survey. 


162 


Fig.  89. 

Parts 

of  a  dairy  cow. 

1. 

Muzzle 

8. 

Neck. 

15.     Ribs 

i. 

Jaw 
Face 

9. 

Withers 

16.     Barrel 

J. 

10. 

Shoulders 

4. 

Forehead 

11. 

Fore   legs 

18.     Hip 

i. 

iye 

12. 

Crops 

19.     Rump 

6. 

Ear 

13. 

Chest 

1. 

Throat 

14. 

Back 

21.     Tail 

22.  Thigh 

23.  Hind  leg 

24.  Udder 

25.  Teats 

26.  Milk    veins 

27.  Milk  wells 


163 


♦SCORE   CARD   FOR  DAIRY   COW. 


Date  of  Birth. 


Breed    Owner 

Estimated  Age 

Estimated    Weight 

SCALE   OF  POINTS 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE" 

Size.    Medium  to  large,  according  to  breed 

Form.  Symmetrical,  spare  throughout,  wedge 
shaped    

Health.     Apparently  vigorous   and   thrifty... 

Quality.  Hair  fine,  soft;  skin  mellow,  loose, 
medium  thickness;  veins  prominent  on 
udder  and  face;  secretions  yellow  and  abun- 
dant; bone  clean,  fine  

Temperament.  Mild  disposition,  much  nerve 
energy,  inclined  to  convert  food  into  milk, 
lean  appearance  when  in  milk 

Objections.      Undersized,    coarse,    meaty,    un- 

symmetrical,  excitable,  sluggish. 
HEAD: 

Muzzle.     Moist,  clean  cut;  mouth  large;  lips 

strong;  nostrils  large,  open 

Eyes.     Large,  protruding,  bright,  mild 

Face.     Lean,   medium  length,   showing   facial 

veins  

Forehead.     Broad,  dishing  

Ears.     Size  medium;  texture   fine;   secretions 

abundant   

Objections.    Thick,  coarse  head;  pinched  muz- 
zle and  nostrils;  small,  dull  or  wil,d  eyes. 
FOREQUARTERS: 

Neck.  Length  medium,  refined;  throat  clean; 
dewlap  light  

Withers.     Lean,  thin,  sharp 

Shoulders.     Light,  oblique   

Legs.     Straight,  short,  wide  apart;  shank  fine 


Corrected  Weight. 


Objections.       Beefy     neck;     broad     withers; 
heavy  shoulders;  legs  close  together. 
BODY: 

Chest.     Deep,  broad  and  roomy 

Barrel.      Deep,    long,    capacious;    ribs    broad, 

long,  wide  apart;  paunch  large,  well  held  up. 

Back.     Lean,  straight,  open  vertebrae,  strong. 

Loin.    Broad  and  strong 

Crops.     Spare  and  A-shaped 


Objections.     Narrow     chest;     shallow,     close 
coupled   barrel;    straight   underline. 


•Score  card  used  by   Nebraska   Agricultural  College. 


Perfect 
Score 


18 


7 

10 

10 
2 
2 

9 


26 


Student 
Score 


Corrected 
Score 


Student 
Score 


Corrected 
Score 


164 


SCORE  CARD   FOR  DAIRY  COW  (Continued). 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 

Perfect  Student 
Score      Score 

Corrected 
Score 

Student 
Score 

Corrected 
Score 

HINDQUARTERS: 

Rump.     Long,  wide,  level;  pelvis  roomy 

2 

2 

1 
4 
2 

1 

Tail.    Set  on  level  with  back,  long,  slim;  hair 

Objections.      Narrow    between   hips   and    be- 
tween    pin    bones;     sloping     rump;     fleshy 
thighs,  meaty  throughout. 
MAMMARY  SYSTEM: 
1       Udder.     Long,    attached    high,    full    behind; 
extended    far    in    front    and    full;   flexible; 
quarters  even,  free  from  fleshiness;  not  cleft 

12 
20 

Teats.     Large,  cylindrical,  evenly  placed 

Mammary  Veins.     Large,  long,  tortuous,  ex- 
tending   well    forward;    milk    wells    large, 

5 

5 

1 
1 

Objections.     Udder  small,  fleshy,   pendulous, 
unsymmetrical;    small,    uneven,  '  or    under- 
sized  teats;   small   milk  wells;    cut   up   be- 
tween teats. 

30 

, 

Total                                               

100 



Name    Date. 


165 


EXERCISE  XLVII. 
JUDGING  DAIRY  COWS. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory   Section   of  Twelve.     Four  dairy  cows  of  as  near  the  same  age  and  period  of  lacta- 
tion as  is  possible  for 'you  to  obtain. 

DIRECTIONS.     Recall  the  introduction  to  Exercise  XLIV,  Judging  Beef  Cattle. 
Study  the  cows  carefully,  place  them  relative  to  one  another  and  then  record  data  as  sug- 
gested by  the  following  form: 


Student's 

Correct 

Dairy  Cow 

Placing 

Estimate  of 
Weight 

Placing 

Weight 

No    1. 

No   2 

Reasons  for  placing  dairy  cow  No.  —  first. 


166 


Reasons  for  placing  dairy  cow  No.  —  second. 


Reasons  for  placing  dairy  cow  No.  —  third. 


Reasons  for  placing  dairy  cow  No.  —  fourth. 


167 


EXERCISE  XLVIII. 

SCORING  DRAFT  HORSES. 

Ellis  Rail,  Professor  of  Agriculture,  State  School  of  Agriculture, 
Curtis,  Nebraska. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.  Three  dozen  score  cards  for  draft  horses — market  class;  two 
or   three   draft   horses    suitable    for    scoring. 

DIRECTIONS.  First  learn  where  the  points  mentioned  in  the  score  card  for  draft  horses 
are  located  in  the  animal.  Second,  read  the  explanation  and  directions  accompanying  the 
score  card  for  draft  horses.  As  you  read  the  explanation  and  directions  it  will  be  well  to  make 
a  casual  study  of  a  draft  horse.    Third,  score  such  horses  as  are  provided  for  this  study. 

EXPLANATIONS    AND    DIRECTIONS   ACCOMPANYING   THE    SCORE    CARD    FOR 

DRAFT  HORSES— MARKET  CLASS. 

Height.  The  draft  horse  should  be  reasonably  low-set.  yet  tali  enough  to  show  style,  bal- 
ance, and  symmetry.  The  height  of  horses  is  measured  at  the  witners.  The  unit  of  measure  is 
a  hand,  or  four  inches.  Unless  a  measuring  staff  is  at  hand,  the  best  method  of  estimating  the 
height  of  a  horse  is  to  learn  first  by  actual  measurement  the  height  of  the  point  of  your  chir 
from  the  ground.  Knowing  this  height,  stand  beside  the  shoulder  of  the  horse  on  exactly  the 
same  level,  and  estimate  carefully  the  difference  between  the  height  of  the  animal's  withers  and 
the  height  of  your  chin. 

Weight.  The  weight  of  the  draft  horse  is  much  more  important  than  is  his  height.  On  the 
market,  a  horse  weighing  less  than  1,600  pounds  is  not  even  classed  as  a  draft  horse,  while  ani- 
mals weighing  1,750  pounds  or  more,  bring  much  higher  prices  than  do  animals  weighing  less. 
A  horse  under  1,750  pounds  can  scarcely  be  said  to  be  a  choice  heavy  drafter;  therefore  for 
every  25  pounds  under  that  weight,  one  point  should  be  subtracted  from  the  total  score.  The 
weight  of  the  animal  should  be  due  to  massiveness  of  frame,  and  great  muscularity  rather  than 
to  excessive  fatness. 

Form.  The  form  of  the  drafter  is  important.  As  a  whole,  the  form  should  be  compara- 
tively close  to  the  ground,  wide,  deep,  compact  and  strongly  put  together  in  all  parts. 

Quality.  Quality  is  a  very  important  consideration  in  horses.  Superior  quality,  or  a  lack 
of  it,  may  easily  make  a  difference  of  a  hundred  dollars  or  more  in  the  selling  price  of  a  draft 
horse.  Horses  of  weight,  bone  and  strength,  but  lacking  the  quality  and  finish  necessary  for 
the  heavy  street  work  ot  our  cities,  are  classed  as  loggers,  and  sell  for  a  much  lower  price 
than  they  would  bring  if  they  possessed  more  quality  and  style.  Quality  refers  to  the  dense- 
ness  and  fineness  of  tissue  structure  in  the  bones  and  muscles  of  the  animal.  Quality  is  indi- 
cated by  many  different  parts  of  the  animal.  The  head  should  be  lean  and  shapely  without 
coarseness  at  the  bridge  of  the  nose.  A  meaty  forehead,  heavy  ears,  or  throatiness  at  the  angle 
of  the  jaw  and  neck  indicate  coarseness.  The  hair  of  the  mane  and  tail  should  be  soft  and  fine. 
The  hair  on  the  fetlocks  and  along  the  backs  of  the  cannons  should  be  very  soft  and  fine.  The 
entire  coat  of  hair  should  show  sleekness  and  fineness.  The  character  of  bone  as  displayed  in 
the  joints,  and  especially  in  the  feet  and  legs,  should  be  studied  carefully  for  quality.  Flat, 
hard,  clean,  well-defined,  cordy  cannons  indicate  quality.  Run  the  fingers  over  the  front  can- 
nons to  determine  the  softness  of  the  skin,  fineness  of  hair,  and  freedom  from  meatiness.  The 
knees  should  show  their  bony  definition,  sharply  and  clearly.  The  bones  of  the  hock  joints 
should  be  very  prominent  and  free  from  any  coarseness,  meatiness,  or  any  sort  of  filling. 
Refinement  of  the  head;  fine,  soft,  glossy  hair,  thin,  velvety  skin;  freedom  from  meatiness  at 
the  knees,  hock,  and  pasterns;  freedom  from  coarseness  at  the  withers,  hips  and  joints  of  the 
legs — all  indicate  quality.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  mistake  smallness  of  bone  as  an  indica- 
tion of  quality.  Drafters  must  have  large,  strong  bones,  but  they  must  be  clean  cut,  dense 
and  hard. 

168 


Legs.  The  way  in  which  the  legs  are  placed  under  a  horse  materially  affect  the  animal's 
usefulness.  A  leg  should  set  squarely  and  perpendicularly  "under  each  corner"  of  the  animal. 
If  the  legs  are  too  wide  apart  the  horse  will  have  a  tendency  to  "roll"  when  moving — if  too 
close  together  the  feet  will  "interfere."  From  the  front,  the  forelegs  should  be  so  placed  that 
a  plumb  line  dropped  from  the  shoulder  point  will  fall  directly  in  the  center  of  the  knee,  follow 
down  the  center  line  of  the  cannon,  and  divide  the  foot  in  the  middle.  A  plumb  line  hung  from 
the  middle  of  the  arm  at  the  side  of  the  leg  should  touch  the  center  of  the  side  of  the  knee, 
follow  along  the  middle  of  the  cannon  joint,  and  fall  directly  behind  the  foot.  Viewing  the 
hind  legs  from  the  rear,  a  line  dropped  from  the  point  of  the  buttock  should  divide  the  hock 
and  cannon  in  half  and  fall  directly  behind  the  center  of  the  foot.  The  same  line  viewed 
from  the  side  should  barely  touch  the  cannon  and  run  parallel  to  it.  * 

Head  and  Neck.  The  nostrils  should  be  large  and  thin,  the  mouth  regular  and  the  lips 
firmly  held.  The  nose  and  face  should  be  lean  and  straight,  i.  e.,  neither  dished  nor  Roman. 
The  eyes  should  be  of  good  6ize,  prominent,  wide  apart,  and  clear.  Medium  sized  ears  carried 
well  forward  and  not  too  close  together  are  most  desirable.  The  jaw  must  be  neat,  but  strong 
and  well  muscled  with  the  two  points  far  apart  to  provide  plenty  of  room  for  the  throat. 
There  should  be  room  enough  between  the  points  to  admit  your  fist.  The  juncture  of  the 
head  and  neck  should  be  clean  and  the  throat  latch  free  from  coarseness.  The  neck  should 
be  arched  and  gradually  increase  in  depth  and  thickness  from  the  head  to  the  body.  At  the 
body  the  neck  should  enlarge  to  blend  well  with  the  shoulders.  A  large  clearly  defined  wind 
pipe  is  desirable. 

The  Forequarters.  The  shoulders  from  their  lower  point  to  the  top  of  the  withers  should 
slope  at  an  angle  of  about  45  degreesv  The  withers  should  be  fine  and  high  enough  to  give 
the  animal  proper  symmetry.  A  good  arm  is  one  which  is  short,  large,  and  heavily  muscled. 
A  good  forearm  is  one  which  is  relatively  long,  broad,  strong,  and  heavily  muscled.  The  knees 
should  be  deep  and  wide.  The  cannons  must  be  short,  large,  clean  cut  and  free  from  meati- 
ness.  The  tendons  at  the  back  of  the  cannons  should  stand  far  back,  giving  the  appearance  of 
fatness  at  this  place.  A  good  fetlock  joint  is  large  but  at  the  same  time  free  from  coarseness. 
Pasterns  of  medium  length,  fair  size,  and  a  slope  of  about  45  degrees  are  most  desirable.  The 
front  feet  of  the  draft  horse  should  be  large,  almost  round  and  of  good  depth.  The  length  of 
the  toe  in  front  should  be  three  times  the  height  of  the  heel  wall.  Half  way  between  the  heel 
and  the  toe  the  height  of  the  wall  should  be  about  two-thirds  the  length  of  the  toe.  The  horn 
of  the  hoof  should  be  dark  colored,  firm,  and  dense.  The  heel  should  be  broad  and  open.  Lift 
the  foot,  and  holding  it  by  taking  the  toe  in  the  hand,  observe  the  bottom.  The  sole  should 
be  slightly  concave,  the  bars  strong  and  firm,  and  the  frog  large  and  elastic.  The  whole  foot 
should  show  the  same  slope  as  the  pastern.  It  should  be  free  from  cracks  and  rough  places  on 
the  wall.  The  top  of  the  quarters  behind  the  foot  should  be  examined  for  hardening  of  the 
lateral  cartilages.  The  hardening  of  these  cartilages  results  in  side  bones.  Any  defect  or  ab- 
normal character  of  the  foot  or  pastern  joint  is  to  be  severely  criticized. 

Body.  From  a  position  in  front  and  somewhat  to  one  side  of  the  horse,  observe  the  ani- 
mal's body.  The  chest  should  be  very  deep  and  wide — the  heart  girth  large;  the  breast,  full. 
The  ribs  should  be  rounding,  long  and  well  sprung.  A  good  back  is  level,  short,  broad  and 
heavily  muscled.  The  loin  or  coupling  is  likewise  broad,  short  and  thickly  covered  with  mus- 
cle. The  loin  should  be  so  short  that  the  last  rib  is  not  farther  away  from  the  hip  joint  than 
the  width  of  one's  hand.    The  body  should  show  decided  depth  at  the  flanks. 

Hindquarters.  One  must  observe  the  hindquarters  both  from  the  side  and  from  the  rear. 
As  seen  from  \he  side,  the  croup  should  be  long  and  relatively  level;  the  thigh  and  gaskins. 
deep  and  wide;  the  hock  joints  wide  and  clean  cut.     Note  the  pasterns  and  feet. 

Now  take  a  position  to  the  rear  of  the  horse.  In  doing  this,  take  care  not  to  get  hurt. 
Never  touch  a  horse  anywhere  behind  without  first  speaking  to  him  loudly  enough  to  be  dis- 
tinctly  heard.      Note    the    width    and    smoothness   of   the   hips.     The   croup   should   be   wide, 

169 


smooth,  muscular.  Decidedly  sloping  croups  with  tail  heads  attached  low  are  objectionable. 
Note  whether  from  this  view  the  thighs  are  sufficiently  wide,  deep  and  well  muscled.  If  the 
tail  is  drawn  aside  it  will  aid  in  getting  a  good  view  of  the  thighs.  Examine  the  hocks  from 
every  viewpoint  possible.  The  hock  should  be  deep,  wide  from  front  to  rear,  and  broad  across 
the  front  face.  The  point  of  the  hock  should  project  well.  The  part  should  be  clean  cut  and 
the  bony  outline  easily  discernible.  The  hock  should  be  hard  and  firm  in  every  respect.  The 
hind  cannons,  like  those  in  front,  should  be  hard,  flat,  clean,  cordy  in  appearance  and  relatively 
short.  The  fetlock  joints  should  be  similar  to  those  in  front.  The  pasterns  should  be  as  clean 
and  strong  as  those  in  front,  but  a. trifle  less  sloping.  The  hind  feet  may  show  a  little  more 
depth  than  those  in  front  and  will  be  a  little  narrower  in  proportion  to  length.  All  other  require- 
ments, including  hoof  texture,  are  the  same  as  in  the  front  feet.  Heels,  which  are  narrow 
and  contracted,  are  especially  objectionable.  It  is  neither  customary  nor  necessary  to  lift  the 
hind  feet  in  examination. 

Action.  Having  examined  in  detail  all  parts  of  th„  horse,  you  are  ready  to  study  the  ani- 
mal's action.  The  hprse  must  be  trotted  as  well  as  walked,  if  one  is  to  get  a  clear  idea  of  the 
animal's  movement  and  be  satisfied  that  he  has  no  lameness. 

Taking  a  position  to  the  rear  of  the  horse,  have  him  led  at  a  walk  directly  away  for  a  dis- 
tance of  twenty-five  yards  or  more.  Carefully  observe  the  legs  for  straightness  of  movement. 
The  feet  should  be  carried  straight  forward  in  a  brisk,  snappy  fashion — the  bottom  of  the 
feet  showing  fully  with  each  step.  If  the  hocks  turn  in  or  out,  or  the  feet  swing  to  one  side 
or  the  other,  it  is  a  fault  and  should  be  criticized.  As  the  horse  is  turned  and  led  toward 
you  again,  note  the  action  for  trueness,  ease  and  snappiness.  Step  to  one  side,  and  as  the 
animal  passes  you,  observe  the  manner  in  which  the  "feet  are  picked  up"  and  the  knee  and  hock 
are  folded.  Note  also  the  length,  as  well  as  the  balance  or  uniformity  of  the  stride.  A  good 
draft  horse  has  a  long,  swinging,  free,  quick  and  straight  going  walk,  carries  his  head  well  up 
and  shows  alertness  and  vigor  in  every  move.  Now  have  the  horse  trotted  first  away  from,  and 
then  towards  you.  Although  you  study  much  the  same  points  in  the  trotting  as  you  did  in  the 
walking,  remember  that  with  the  draft  horse  walking  is  of  far  more  importance  than  trotting. 

Temperament.  Temperament  of  a  desirable  character  is  indicated  by  a  bright,  clear,  ex- 
pressive eye,  alert  appearance,  energetic  style — all  coupled  with  docility. 

You  have  now  completely  filled  out  your  score  card.  Give  the  horse  a  quick,  general,  final 
survey,  with  reference  to  the  score  card,  and  you  should  have  fairly  well  in  mind  most  of  the 
animal's  defects  and  points  of  merit. 


170 


1. 

Mouth 

1. 

Nostril 

3. 

Chin 

•4. 

Nose 

5. 

Face 

6. 

Forehead 

7. 

Eye 

8. 

Ear 

9. 

Lower  jaw 

1<J 

Throatlatch 

F 

,g.  90. 

Points  o 

the  horse 

11. 

Windpipe 

21. 

Fetlock   joint 

12. 

Crest 

22. 

Pastern 

13. 

Withers 

23. 

Foot 

14. 

Shoulder 

24. 

Fore  flank 

15. 

Breast 

25. 

Heart  girth 

16. 

Arm 

26. 

Coupling 
Back 

17. 

Elbow 

27. 

18. 

Forearm 

28. 

Loin 

19. 

Knee 

29. 

Rear  flank 

20 

Cannon 

• 

30. 

Belly 

31.  Hip 

32.  Croup 

33.  Tail 

34.  Buttocks 

35.  Quarters 

36.  Thigh 

37.  Stifle 

38.  Gaskin,   or   lower   thigh 

39.  Hock 


171 


SCORE    CARD    FOR   DRAFT    HORSES. 


Animal  No.  1      Animal  No.  2    Animal  No.  3 


Scale  of  Points  for  Draft  Horses 


Perlec! 
Score 


Student's 
Score 


Corrected 
Score 


Student's 
Score 


Corrected 
Score 


Student's 
Score 


Corrected 
Score 


GENERAL  POINTS: 

Age    

Height    

Weight,  1750  lbs.  or  more  for  mature  ani- 
mals; score  according  to  age,  subtract- 
ing one  point  from  total  score  for  every 
25  lbs.  under  weight 

Form,  broad,  massive,  low  set,  propor 
tioned;  ribs  long  and  well  sprung;  flank 
low  .- 

Quality.  Bone  clean,  yet  indicating  suf- 
ficient substance;  tendons  distinct;  skin 
and  hair  fine 

Temperament,  energetic,  good  disposition. 

Set  of  Legs.  Legs  straight  and  set  squarely 
under  the  body 

HEAD  AND  NECK: 
Head  and  Ears.     Head  lean  and  medium 
size;  ears  medium  size,  alert,  well  carried 

Eyes,  full,  bright,  clear,  large 

Neck,  muscled;  crest  high;  throat-latch 
clean,   windpipe   large 


FOREQUARTERS: 

Shoulders,  sloping,  smooth,  extending  into 
back;  fine  withers 

Arm  and  Forearm,  well  muscled;  arm 
short;  forearm  long  and  wide 

Knees,  wide,  clean  cut,  straight,  deep, 
strongly  supported 

Cannons,  short,  wide;  tendons  large  and  set 
well  back 

Pasterns  and  Feet.  Pasterns  sloping. 
lengthy,  strong;  feet  large,  even  size, 
straight;  horn  dense,  dark  colored;  sole 
concave;  bars  strong;  frog  large,  elastic; 
heel  wide.  CAUTION.  Watch  for  side 
bones    


BODY: 

Chest,  deep,  wide,  large  girth 

Back,  short,  broad,  heavily  muscled. 
Loin,  wide,  short,  thick 


HINDQUARTERS: 

Hips,  smooth,  wide 

Croup,  long,  wide,  muscular;   tail   attached 
high   


12 


172 


SCORE  CARD  FOR  DRAFT  HORSES  (Continued). 


Scale  of  Points  for  Draft  Horses 

Pcrlecl 
Score 

Student's 
Score 

Corrected 
Score 

Student, s 
Score 

Cor  redo d 
Score 

Student's 

Score 

Corrected 

Score 

Thighs    and    Quarters,    heavily    muscled; 

6 

12 
2 

Hocks,  clean  cut,  not  puffy  or  boggy,  wide, 

CAUTION.     Watch  for  bone  spavins  and 

Cannons,  short,  wide,  with  tendons  set  far 

Pasterns  and  Feet.  Pasterns  sloping,  strong, 
lengthy;   feet   large,   even   size,   straight: 
horn  dense,  dark  color;  sole  concave;  bars 
strong;  frog  large,  elastic;  heel  wide.... 

ACTION: 
Walk,  smooth,  quick,  long,  balanced;  trot 

6 
8 

Total : 

1 1 It 1 II 

Date 

Grade    Signature . 

*  Score    card    used    by    Nebraska    Agricultural    College. 


173 


EXERCISE  XLIX. 
JUDGING  DRAFT  HORSES. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory   Section   of  Twelve.     Four  draft   horses   carefully   chosen   for  the   purpose   of   bring- 
ing out  keen  judging. 

DIRECTIONS.     Recall  the  introduction  to  Exercise  XLIV,  Judging  Beef  Cattle. 
Study  the  horses  carefully,  place  them  relative   to  one   another,  and   then   record   data   as 
suggested  by  the  following  form: 


Student's 

Correct 

Draft  Horse 

Placing 

Estimate 
of  Weight 

• 
Placing 

Weight 

No.    1 

No.  2 

No.  3 

No.  4 

1 

Reasons  for  placting  draft  horse  No.  —  first. 


174 


Reasons  for  placing  draft  horse  No.  —  second. 


Reasons  for  placing  draft  horse  No.  —  third. 


Reasons  for  placing  draft  horse  No.  —  fourth. 


17$ 


EXERCISE  L. 
SEASONAL   FLUCTUATION   IN  THE  PRICE  OF  AGRICULTURAL 

PRODUCTS. 

Supplies  for  a  Laboratory  Section  of  Twelve.     Red  ink  and  blue  ink. 

1.  A  study  of  the  seasonal  supply  and  price  of  eggs  will  illustrate  many  of  the  factors 
which  affect  market  prices  of  agricultural  products. 

The  following  table  shows  the  approximate  dates  and  prices  of  eggs  of  the  "prime  first" 
class  on  the  Chicago  market,  March  1,  1910,  to  February  28,  1911.  Transfer  this  data  to  a 
sheet  of  graph  paper  as  suggested  by  tlie  following:  First,  turn  the  paper  with  the  broad  side 
toward  you.  Second,  let  each  centimeter  at  the  base  of  the  sheet  represent  a  month  of  the 
year.  Let  Marcn  be  the  first  month.  Third,  let  each  centimeter  vertically  along  the  left  hand 
margin  represent  five  cents  in  value.  Fourth,  transfer  the  data  below  to  the  graph  paper  by 
placing  a  dot  at  the  place  that  most  nearly  coincides  with  the  date  and  price  given.  Fifth,  after 
transferring  all  data  to  the  graph  paper,  connect  the  dots  by  a  smooth  curve  drawn  in  red  ink 
or  with  a  red  pencil. 

Approximate  Prices  of  Eggs  in  Chicago,  1910-1911. 

• 

March   1 .* $0.26  September  31 $0.24 

March  31 21  October  31 27y2 

April   30 .20  November   30 31 

May  31 19  December  31 ZlVi 

June  30 18  January  31 25 

July  31 1754  February   28 17     • 

August  IS 20 

The  graph  for  the  price  of  storage  eggs  may  be  shown  by  a  broken  red  line  drawn  on  the 
same  sheet  of  graph  paper. 

Storage  Eggs  in  Chicago  Market 

November   1 $0.24  January  31 $0.12*4 

December  1 23  February  14 11 

December  31 22  February  28 12 

January   15 22 

Draw  a  third  graph  on  the  same  sheet  showing  the  quantities  of  eggs  coming  into  Chicago 
during  this  period,  March  1,  1910  to  February  20,  1911. 

In  drawing  this  graph  let  each  centimeter  vertically  represent  25,000  cases  of  eggs.  The 
months  will  remain  unchanged.    The  line  for  this  graph  may  be  drawn  in  blue  ink. 

Supply  of  Eggs  on  Chicago  Market 

March  1,  1910-Feb.  20,  1911. 

Cases  Cases 

March  1 45,000  September  30  37,000 

March  31 75,000  October  31 25,000 

April    15 198,000  November   30 12,500 

May  15 125,000  December  31 10,000 

June  15 100,000  January  31 25,000 

July  15 75,000  February  20 50,000 

August   24 , 50,000 

176 


(a)  During  what  months  are  eggs  most  plentiful? 

(b)  What  relation  do  you  observe  to  exist  between  the  supply  of  eggs  available  and  their 


price 


(c)  During  what  months  are  cold  storage  eggs  usually  sold? 

(d)  When   is  it  most   profitable   to  purchase  eggs  for  cold  storage? 

(e)  Suppose  that  eggs  were  not  stored  during  this  period,  what  might  be  the  effect  on  the 
price  of  eggs  during  the  time? 

(f)  What  might  be  the  effect  if  no  cold  storage  eggs  were  sold  during  the  period  of  Novem- 
ber to  March? 

(g)  The  storage  of  eggs  has  what  general  effect  upon  market  price? 

(h)  If  seasonal  changes  did  not  affect  the  production  of  eggs  what  would  be  the  effect 
upon  market  prices? 

(i)     If  eggs  were  as  easily  kept  as  wheat,  what  would  be  the  effect? 

(j)     At  what  time  of  year  does  the  farmer  and  his  family  eat  the  most  eggs?     Explain. 

(k)     What  effect  has  this  upon  the  price  of  eggs? 

(1)     When  does  the  city  man  eat  the  most  eggs? 

(m)     What  effect  has  this  upon  the  market  price? 

2.  The  following  graphs  illustrate  the  seasonal  fluctuations  in  price  of  a  number  of  the 
leading  agricultural  products  in  the  United  States. 

(a)  By  reference  to  the  graph  showing  the  seasonal  fluctuations  in  the  price  of  corn  (Fig. 
91)  determine  as  accurately  as  possible  the  average  time  of  highest  prices  and  the  average  time 
of  lowest  prices. 

(b)  What  in  your  opinion  is  the  explanation  of  why  a  particular  month  in  the  summer  is 
the  average  time  of  the  highest  prices  for  corn  and  a  particular  month  in  the  winter  is  the 
average  time  of  the  lowest  prices  for  corn? 

(c)  Why  is  it  that  some  years  the  highest  price  of  corn  is  earlier  than  normal  and  other 
vears  a  little  later? 

3.  In  like  manner  make  a  study  of  the  graph  illustrating  the  seasonal  fluctuation  in  the 
price  of  oats.    Fig.  92. 

4.  Wheat.     Fig.  93. 

5.  Potatoes.    Fig.  94. 

6.  Eggs.     Fig.  95. 

7.  Butter.     Fig.  96.  j 

8.  Chickens.     Fig.  97. 


177 


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125 
120 

115 

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100 
95 
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80 
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Fig.  9L 

The  above  chart  represents  graphically  the  movement  of  the  average  price  received  for  corn  by  farmers  of  the 
United  States  monthly  during  a  period  of  five  years;  100  represents  the  average  monthly  prices  for  the  entire 
period.  Observe  the  regular  seasonal  variation;  highest  prices  were  reached  on  August  1  in  three  years,  on  July  1 
and  June  1  once  each.  Lowest  prices  were  reached  on  December  1  in  four  years,  and  January  1  once.  The  in- 
crease from  the  low  price  to  high  price  was  51  per  cent  in  1908;  27  per  cent  in  1909;  12  per  cent  in  1910;  37  per 
cent  in  1911,  and  33  per  cent  in  1912.  The  average  increase  in  price  from  December  1  to  August  1  during  this 
period  of  five  years  was  31  per  cent;  that  is,  from  55.9  cents,  the  average  on  December  1,  to  72  cents,  the  average 
on  August  1.  There  is  a  normal  shrinkage  of  Weight  of  corn  from  December  to  August  of  about  8  to  14  per  cent 
About  13  per  cent  of  the  corn  sold  in  a  year  is  marketed  in  January,  10  per  cent  in  February,  7  per  cent  in 
March,  5  per  cent  in  April,  8  per  cent  in  May,  7  per  cent  in  June,  5  per  cent  in  July,  6  per  cent  in  August,  6  per 
cent  in  September,  7  per  cent  in  October,  11  per  cent  in  November,  and  15  per  cent  in  December.  Thus,  it  is 
seen,  the  marketings  m  December,  the  month  of  heaviest  movement,  are  about  three  times  as  heavy  as  in  July, 
the  month  of  lightest  movement. 


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Fig.  92. 

The  oats  production  was  1,007,000,000  bushels  in  1909;  1,186,000,000  in  1910;  922,000,000  in  1911;  and  1,418,- 
000,000  in  1912.  Note  the  influence  of  the  large  crops  of  1910  and  1912  and  of  the  short  crop  of  1911.  Also  note 
the  close  parallel  with  corn  prices. 


178 


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Fig.  93. 

Wheat  prices  are  more  strongly  influenced  by  "world"  conditions  than  are  prices  of  other  staple  crops,  which 
makes  the  fluctuations  appear  more  irregular.  The  production  in  the  United  States  in  1909  was  683,000,000  bush- 
els;  in   X910  it  was  635,000,000;   in    1911,   621,000,000;   and  in  1912,  730,000,000. 


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Fig.  94. 

There  is  an  early  crop  and  a  late  crop  of  potatoes;  hence  the  seasonal  variation  of  prices  is  not  so  regular  u 
with  most  crops.  The  crop  of  1909  was  389  million  bushels;  1910,  349  million;  1911,  293  million  (very  short): 
and  the  crop  of  1912,  421  million. 


179 


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Fig.  95. 

The   seasonal   fluctuation  of  eggs  is  more  regular,   and    the    swing    from    high    to    low    wider,    than    with    most 
products. 


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BUTTER 

Fig.  96. 

The   seasonal   fluctuations   of  butter  prices   are   similar  to  those  of  egg  prices,  except  that  the  range  from  high 
to  low  is  not  so  wide. 


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JL.f_. _ , 

v  CHICKENS 

Fig.  97. 

The  trend  of  prices  of  chickens  is  the  reverse  of  that  of  butter  and  eggs;  that  is,  prices  of  chickens  are  high- 
est in   summer  and  lowest  in  winter.     The  range  from  high  to  low  is  also  narrower. 
Crop  Reporter,  Mar.    15,   1913. 

180 


C 


1  2  3 


EXERCISE  LI. 

THE  COST  OF  LIVING. 

DIRECTIONS.  In  order  to  determine  with  some  degree  of  accuracy  the  cost  of  living  on 
the  farm  and  in  the  city  it  is  necessary  to  collect  data  from  persons  who  have  had  experience 
in  one  or  both  places.  Your  parents  and  friends  can  be  of  help  to  you  in  calculating  the  cost 
of  certain  items  called  for  in  the  following  blank.  For  the  sake  of  having  a  common  basis  for 
this  work  let  the  family  under  consideration  be  an  average  family  of  five,  with  three  children 
of  school  age. 


♦Interest  on  house  and  lot 

Taxes  on  house  and  lot 

Repair  of  house 

Heat   

Light 

Water 

Telephone  

Butter  

Eggs  

Meat  

Vegetables 

Other  groceries 

Clothes  

Church 

Amusement 

Cost  of  keeping  a  horse  and  buggy, 

team  and  carriage,  or  automobile 

Carfare  


Total 


Farm 


City 


It  will  be  interesting  to  average  the  data  collected  by  the  class. 


"Interest  at  5%  on  house  and  lot   in  the  city  or  house  and 
it   as  interest,  taxes  and  repair. 


"dooryard"  in    the  country-     If  rent  is  paid,  consider 


182 


EXERCISE  LII. 

ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  FARM  PLANS  AND  CROP  ROTATION. 

INTRODUCTION.     While  studying  farm  plans  and  crop  rotation  it  will  be  well  to  keep 
in  mind  the  following  points:  _ 

1.  Simple  rotations  with  few  fields  are  preferable  to  complicated  rotations  and  a  large  num- 
ber of  fields. 

2.  If  stock  and  crop  production  are  to  be  kept   about   the    same   from   year   to  year,   it   is 
important  in  laying  out  the  farm  for  rotations,  to  make  the  fields  about  equal  in  size. 

3.  Location  of  fields  relative  to  the  farmstead  should  be  such  that  there  will  be  little  loss 
of  time  in  going  to  and  from  the  field. 

4.  To  avoid  unnecessary  social  isolation  the  farmstead  should  be  located  near  the  highway. 


1912  Clover 
30A 

1912 
Past- 
ure 
30 
A. 

— 2- 
1912  Wheat 
30  A 

-3— 

1912  Oats 
30  A 

— 4— 

1912  Corn 

SO  A 

-6— 
Farm- 
stead 10  A 

Fig.  98.      Plan  A.  Fig.  99.     Plan  B. 

DIRECTIONS.  1.  Let  Plan  B  represent  the  rearrangement  of  the  poorly  arranged  farm 
as  illustrated  by  Plan  A.  Reproduce  the  above  diagrams  on  separate  sheets  of  graph  paper, 
using  as  a  scale  one  millimeter  to  the  rod.* 

2.  (a)     State  the  dimensions  of  the  farm  in  rods. 

(b)  Its  size  in  acres. 

(c)  This  farm  is  what  part  of  a  section? 

(d)  How  many  rods  are  there  in  a  mile? 

(e)  How  many  acres  are  there  in  a  section? 

3.  State  the  dimensions  of  each  field  (Plans  A  and  B)  in  rods.  Also  state  the  size  of 
each  field  in  acres. 

4.  (a)  Compare  the  number  of  rods  of  fence  required  in  Plan  A  with  the  number 
required  in  Plan  B.  (b)  In  which  plan  is  the  farmstead  more  favorably  located  with  refer- 
ence to  fields?  (c)  Compare  the  labor  required  to  plow  field  1,  3.  6,  or  8.  Plan  A.  with  the 
labor  required  to  plow  any  field  in  Plan  B. 

5.  Plan  B  shows  the  crop  on  each  field  during  the  year  1912.  Write  on  the  plan  the  proper 
arrangement  of  crops  for  1913,  1914,  1915,  1916. 

6.  Re-draw  Plan  B  with  no  more  change  than  is  necessary  in  placing  the  farmstead  at  the 
middle  of  the  east  side.  Show  on  the  plan  the  crops  raised  in  each  field  during  a  five-year 
period.    What  advantage  is  gained  by  this  arrangement?    What  disadvantage  appears? 


'Plans  A   and   B   are  merely  suggestive; — no  attempt  being   made   to    give   true   proportions, 
however,  given  to  allow  the  student  to  calculate .  the  true  dimensions. 

183 


Sufficient    data   is, 


10  11  12         12  14  15  16  17 


) 


8  9  10  11  12         13 


14 


16  17 


I 


8  9  10  11  12  13 


14 


15  16  17 


— 


10  11  12         13  14  15  16  17 


10  11  12         13 


14 


15  16  17 


") 


INDEX 


J 


Air,  composition   18 

Alfalfa  seed: 

adulteration  illustrated Ill 

forms    illustrated 109 

germination    115 

plump  and  shriveled  illustrated 109 

quality     115 

Alsike  clover  illustrated 110 

Altitude  map,  Nebraska 48 

Altitude  map,  United  States 46 

Animal   breeds 139-143 

Animal  types    129-138 

Anther 38 

Bacteria 28 

Barley: 

descriptive  form    98 

descriptive  terms    96 

inflorescence  93 

plant 93-95 

.spikelet,  six-row  illustrated 94 

spikelet,  two-row  illustrated 95 

Beef  cattle: 

judging  156 

location  of  points  on  live  animal 154 

score  card   155 

scoring   152 

Beef  cuts: 

retail    149 

retail  illustrated  150 

prices  151 

uses   151 

Bisexual   59 

Blade 35 

Bordeaux  mixture    118 

Brome    grass    illustrated 102 

Burr  clover  illustrated   110 

Bushel,  as  a  unit  of  measure 52 

Butter   fat    158-159 

Butter,  fluctuation  in  price 180 

Butter  milk,  artificial 160 

Calcium    24 

Capillarity    15 

Carbon    128 

Carbon  dioxide    19 

Catalogs,    seed    house 120-126 

Cattle: 

beef  type   illustrated 132 

breeds   139 

dairy  type  illustrated 132 

distribution  in  the  United  States 144 

types   131 

Cheat  or  chess  illustrated 102 

Chicken: 

breeds   140 

egg  type  illustrated 138 

fluctuation   in  price 180 

meat  type  illustrated 138 

types   : 137 

Clay     11 

Clover: 

alsike  illustrated   110 

burr  illustrated    110 

crimson  illustrated  110 

red  illustrated    109 

small  yellow  annual  sweet  illustrated...  110 

white  illustrated   109 

white  sweet  illustrated 110 


Commercial  grading  of  wheat 54,  55 

Condensation    21 

Corn: 

adaptation  70,  76 

descriptive  outlines  65,  66 

descriptive  terms  : 61-64 

distribution  in  the  United  States 67,  68 

ear  with  jointed  husks  illustrated 57 

ear  with  silks  illustrated 59 

fluctuation   in  price 178 

germination   81 

inflorescence   59 

judging    79,  80 

judging  board  illustrated 74 

kinds   67 

leaves 56 

plant 56-60 

roots    56 

score  card   78 

scoring   74 

seed  corn   testing 81-85 

silks  attached  to  kernels  illustrated....     60 

spikelet    dissected   illustration 58 

stems  56 

tassel  illustrated   57 

viability 75 

Cost  of  living 182 

Cotyledons    33 

Cows: 

dairy    161 

distribution  in  the  United   States 144 

location  of  points  on  live  animal 163 

Crimson  clover  illustrated 110 

Crop  rotation  183 

Crown  of  kernel 33 

Culm   ....: 35 

Culture  medium 28 

Culture  solution    26 

Cuttings   30 

Dairy   cows: 

distribution  in   the   United  States 144 

illustrated 132 

judging  166 

location  of  points  on  live  animal 163 

score  card   164-165 

scoring    161-165 

Draft  horses: 

illustrated 130 

judging  174 

location  of  points  on  live  animal 171 

score  card    172-173 

scoring   168 

Eggs,  fluctuation  in  price 176,  177,  180 

Embryonic  plantlet   33 

Endosperm    33 

Environment: 

effect  on  wheat  types  42-44 

effect  on  corn  types  70-71 

effect  on  types  of  horses 143 

Evaporation    21 

Farm  plans   183 

Fertilizer  elements  and  compounds 24-26 

Filament    38 

Flower: 

fertile 37 

sterile    37 

wheat   and   grasses 37 


189 


Framy  (wheat)    52 

Fungicide     118 

Germ   33 

Germination,  corn  illustrated 82 

Gerroinator,  corn    82 

Germinator,  seed    22 

Glumes     37 

Grafting   31 

Grafting,  illustrated  32 

Grafting  v/ax   1 19 

Grass  "seed"  99-111 

adulterations 106 

characteristics  99,  100 

comparison  blanks 104,  105 

identification 103 

illustrations   101,  102 

mixtures  106 

Gravel 

Growing  season  denned 72 

Growing  season  in  Nebraska 73 

Growing  season  in  the  United  States 72 

Hilum 33 

Hogs: 

bacon   type   illustrated 134 

breeds   139 

distribution   in  the  United   States 145 

lard  type  illustrated 1 34 

types 133 

Horse: 

breeds   139 

draft,  type   illustrated 130 

judging   174 

light  harness  type  illustrated 130 

location  of  points  on  live  animal 171 

score  card 172,  173 

scoring  draft  animals 168 

types    129 

Hyaline    37 

Hypocotyle   33 

Inflorscence: 

barley    . .  v 93 

corn    59 

oats    85 

wheat 35 

Insecticide   119 

Internode     35 

Judging: 

beef  cattle 156 

corn  79 

dairy  cows    166 

denned    79 

horses 174 

potatoes    116-118 

seed  house  catalogues 120-126 

wheat 50-53 

Kentucky  blue  grass  "seed"  illustrated.. ..   101 

Kerosene   emulsion    119 

Kherson  oats,  illustrated 86 

Leaves,  netted-veined   35 

Leaves,  parallel-veined   35 

Legume  seed    107-115 

adulterations    112 

characteristics 107 

comparison  blank    113,  114 

illustrated   109-111 

pod  illustrated  33 


Living,  cost   of 182 

Loam    •. 11 

Meadow   fescue   illustrated 102 

Meat: 

cuts 149 

prices  of  various  retail  cuts  of  beef....    151 

uses  of  various  retail  cuts  of  beef 151 

Milk    158-160 

buttermilk,    artificial    160 

composition  158-160 

lactone  tablets    160 

pasteurization    160 

physical  properties  158 

sterilization   160 

Minerals,   soil   forming 7-10 

Moulds   27 

Moulds,   yeast   and    bacteria — illustration   of 

comparative   size   27 

Netted  veined  leaves 35 

Nitrogen   18,  25 

Nodes    35 

Oats: 

descriptive  form    -90 

descriptive   terms    88 

fluctuation  in  price 178 

inflorescence    85 

Kherson  oats  illustrated 86 

panicle    85 

plant    85 

side    oats    illustrated 86 

smut   illustrated 91 

smut,   treatment   for 91,  92 

spikelet    dissected     .'.     86 

stooling  illustrated  85 

Orchard    grass   "seed"    illustrated 102 

Osmosis   22 

Osmosis    illustrated    '. 23 

Ovary   ■ 38 

Oxygen    17 

Panicle    '. 85 

Parallel  veined  leaves 35 

Pasteurization    160 

Pedicel    85 

Petiole    -    35 

Phosphorus   25 

Plant  food  elements 26 

Plant  products: 

fat    127 

protein    127 

■    starch    127 

sugar   127 

Plumule    33 

Pollen   38 

Potassium    24 

Potatoes,  fluctuation  in  price 179 

Potatoes,  quality  of 116,  117 

Precipitation  in  Nebraska — a  map 47 

Precipitation  in  the  United  States — a  map.     45 

Price,  seasonal  fluctuation 176-181 

butter    180 

chickens  180 

corn  178 

eggs  176,  177,  180 

oats  178 

potatoes  179 

wheat    179 

Primary  root   33 


190 


^ 


J 


1'ropagation: 

cuttings    30 

grafting    31 

roots    30 

seeds    32 

Protein    127 

Rachilla    37 

Rachis    35 

Rainfall: 

effect  on  wheat  types 42-44 

effect  on  corn  types 70-71 

Nebraska — a  map  47 

United    States — a   map 45 

Red   Clover,  adulteration   illustrated Ill 

Ked  Clover  seed  illustrated 109 

Red   Top  "seed"   illustrated 101 

Rocks,  soil  forming   11-13 

Root: 

fibrous    35 

hairs    22,  23 

propagation 30 

tap 35 

stocks    31 

Rye   grass  "seed"   illustrated 102 

Sand    11 

Score   card: 

beef   cattle    155 

corn   78 

dairy  cows   164,  165 

draft   horses    172,173 

place  of  in  instruction 74 

Seed  coat 33 

Seed  corn  testing  81 

Seed: 

dicotyledonous  33 

germinator  illustrated   22 

grass    99-1 1 1 

gross  structure  33 

houses   120 

illustrations  of  grass    101,  102 

illustrations  of  legume 109-111 

monocotyledonous    33 

propagation    32 

Sheath  of  grass  leaves 35 

Sheep: 

breeds    140 

mutton  type   illustrated 136 

types   135 

wool  type   illustrated    136 

Silt    11 

Smut: 

barley    _  92 

corn    92 

oat   91 

sorghum    92 

wheat  51,  92 

Soil :    7-26 

capillarity    15 

clay    11 

composition     14 

fertilizers    24-26 

ice-laid,  illustrated   13 

loam    11 

minerals   7 

origin    11-13 

physical  properties   14 

rocks   11 

sand 11 


silt   11 

sorting  and  transportation 12 

temperature     16 

water    - 1 

water  holding  capacity IJ'y. 

water-laid,   illustrated    13' 

wind-laid,  illustrated    13 

Spike   35 

Spike,   various   views   illustrating 36 

Spikelet: 

barley   dissected    94 

corn   dissected    58, 

defined    36 

oat  dissected 86 

wheat  dissected   36,  38 

Spores     27 

Starch  : 127 

Sterilization    28,  29,  160 

Stigma    38 

Style    38 

Supplies,   complete   list    for   manual,    (See 
following  pages) 

Sweet  clover,  small  yellow  annual 110 

Sweet  clover,  white  110 

Test: 

acid    24 

alkali   24 

Bordeaux  mixture    118,  119 

butter  fat 158 

calcite    11,  12 

carbon  dioxide 19 

fat    127 

hydrogen    20 

nitrogen 18 

oxygen    17 

carbon,  presence  of 128 

presence  of  water  20 

protein    127 

solids-  in  solution 21 

starch    .. 127 

sugars 127 

wheat    52 

Timothy    "seed"    illustrated 101 

Tip  of  kernel 33 

Trefoil,  yellow  1 10 

Unisexual    59 

Water    20-21 

chemical  composition   *...     20 

presence  of  in  various  substances 20 

rain  water  21 

soil  water    21 

solvent  power    20 

test  for  presence  of   20 

Wax    for    grafting 119 

Wheat   35-55 

,  bin  burnt   51 

bushel — as  a  unit  of  measure 52 

color    50 

commercial    grading    54 

composition    44 

descriptive  form   41 

descriptive  terms    40 

descriptive  form  for  threshed  grain 53 

distribution  in  the  United  States 42 

effect  of  environment 42 

flower    37 

fluctuation  in  price  179 

gluten   content    44,  50 

191 


Wheat  (Continued)  : 

hardness    SO 

inflorescence  35 

kernel  illustrated 37 

leaves    35 

odor 52 

physical  properties 44 

quality  of  threshed  grain 50 

regions  of  the  United  States — a  map. . . .  49 

roots    35 

scab 51 

smut 51 

spikelet  (immature)  dissected  and  illus- 
trated      38 


spikelet    (mature)    dissected    and    illus- 
trated         36 

stack  burnt  51 

stem 35 

test    52 

texture    50 

types,  botanical    40-41 

types,  regional   42-49 

uses  of  44 

weight  per  bushel  52 

White    Clover   seeds,   illustrated 109 

Yeasts    27 

Yellow   trefoil    110 


192 


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